Senin, 03 November 2008
manfaat multimedia
multimedia sangat penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa. workshop sangat penting dalam implementasi pembelajaran bahasa.
Jumat, 22 Agustus 2008
improving students listening through Podcast
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ LISTENING SKILL THROUGH PODCASTING PROGRAM
By
Yudi Juniardi
yjuniardi@yahoo.com (Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University)
I. Introduction
Listening is one of language skills that for students still difficult to master. It can be seen from students’ achievement of TOEFL. Their scores in listening are still low if it compares to others skills such as reading comprehension and written expression.
In learning a language, listening is one skill that should be acquired at early stage before other skills such as speaking, reading and writing. After listening some one will learn to speak a word or sentence that he or she heard. In learning a foreign language, for instance English, learning listening is not only study the utterances or word that we heard but learners should learn the utterances that happened in real context or situational context
The explanation above is appropriate for Indonesia which applies CBC (Competency based curriculum) that more focus on how students acquire competencies for their future relating with their daily live. In CBC, CTL (contextual teaching and Learning) as an approach is applied as students should learn from real context or what they see and do in their daily live. However, still, the students’ ability in listening skill is low. They find difficulties in understanding native speeches or utterances, especially in daily activity context.
There are some steps to overcome this problem: firstly, increasing frequency of listening native speaker. Secondly, using multimedia can encourage, stimulate and motivate students in learning listening. last but not the lest, giving contextual and situational sources of learning. material.
To overcome the problem above, applying multimedia can be one of solution as it has some advantages for improving students’ listening skill. By using multimedia students not only hear the sound but also can capture the pictures, moreover by using multimedia a teacher can download native voice as a source material for teaching listening. One of the programs that can be applied is podcast program.
Podcast is a program that can be applied in learning listening. By operating podcast it can operate music, news, TV program etc. podcast has two files audio (MP3) and video (MP4). These files can be down load free of charge fromwww.cnn.com. One of example can be down loaded from CNN is Larry King Live Podcast.
Another example, which is also interesting to be used as the teaching material, is taken from www.invisiblechildren.com . There are many videos which can be downloaded by subscribing to the website using iTunes.
These two examples are few of many others materials that can be freely downloaded from the internet by subscribing to the website using iTunes. The capacity of each file is varied (about 3 to 100 Mb) according to duration of the podcast. For instance, it takes at least one and a half hour to download a 15 minutes Larry King Live Podcast.
Relate to the explanation above, to overcome students difficulties in listening skill, a research has been done. The research is to investigate whether podcast can be a multimedia that can be applied to overcome students listening skill difficulties.
The aim of the research is .to find out the effectiveness of podcast in teaching listening. To investigate whether podcast can improve students listening skill. The design of the research is classroom action research. The research was conducted at third semester of English department students in academic year 2007-2008. They were having subject of listening III. The research involves three cycles to see the effectiveness of the media to improve students listening skill.
2. Literature review
Listening
Listening, like reading comprehension, is usually defined as a receptive skill comprising both a physical process and an interpretive, analytical process. (See Lundsteen 1979 for a discussion of listening.) However, this definition is often expanded to include critical listening skills (higher-order skills such as analysis and synthesis) and nonverbal listening (comprehending the meaning of tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.)
Podcast
A podcast is not simply a link to an MP3 file that your customers can download off your Web page. While it is certainly possible for someone to listen to your recording on their iPod or other MP3 player, just putting the MP3 up does not make it a podcast.
A podcast is an MP3 or other audio file delivered off a Web site via an RSS feed. Podcast is derived from the terms "iPod" and "broadcast". It is attributed to the original creators of podcasting who used iPods to listen to their RSS broadcasts. Then Apple added an RSS reader to the iTunes software, making it simple for anyone with an iPod to subscribe and listen to podcasts. All you need to know is the URL of the RSS or XML.
Usage of podcasts
The term podcast means a digital recording of a radio broadcast or similar program, made available on the internet for downloading to a personal audio player. There are some reasons why we use podcast: firstly, the use & circulation of Podcasts is constantly increasing in popularity. Next, for the purpose of teaching languages, it is useful as a tool to activate the language, as students get to listen to the correct pronunciation of the words they have studied and then listen to examples of them in real life situations. Last but not the least; Podcasts can be listened to everywhere, not only on computers, but also, with digital portable music players (such as iPod or Zune.)
Podcasts Subscription
Not similar to radio, we can listen to MP3 files at any time. However, podcasts combine the ability to subscribe to a Web site and learn about any new additions immediately with the MP3 downloads. So, unlike radio, when you sign up for a podcast, you can listen to either older editions of the podcast, or you can wait until the author creates and uploads a new one. You then set up your iPod to check periodically for updates. When a new podcast recording is available, iTunes downloads automatically. Podcasts can update as often as the author has time to make a recording. For example, some of the podcasts I subscribe to only update once a month or so. While others update daily and sometimes more often than that.
Previous research
Research on podcast has been done before by some researchers. Based on previous research, Chinnery, G. M. (2007). Turkish language students were able to use their iPods for listening to authentic songs and other audio materials. While uses of iPods and, more recently, podcasting are on the rise, Chinnery voices concerns about possible poor audio quality, limited availability (although mobile labs are one suggestion for combating this problem), lack of a cultural context, and limited social interaction.
Then, according to Lee, B. (2007, February 19) Lecturers are providing recording versions of their lectures in podcast format, deliverable with iTunesU. Lee interviews one ESL professor, Bob Cole, who podcasted teacher-training conferences for his graduate CALL course. Cole reported that "It kind of raised the level of the classroom discussion having it recorded." In addition to increasing the level of class discussion, students say they are using podcasts to review lecture information they may have missed; these recorded lectures come in handy when it comes to test time. Podcasting is reportedly just the beginning for online learning at Monterey's Naval Postgraduate school, which is also looking into using scenario-based interactive games.
Last but not the least, Stanley, G. (2006). In his paper : Podcasting: Audio on the Internet Comes of Age discusses issues related to audio and video podcasting, as well as webcasting, that are of interest to language teachers thinking about integrating these new technologies into their classrooms. Stanley begins with a brief overview of what podcasting is and how podcasts work, and then discusses possibilities for using podcasts in the language classroom, including as a supplement to textbook materials, as a source for authentic listening materials, and as a way for students to gain information on specific aspects of the language, such as idiomatic expressions or grammatical constructions. Stanley recommends many places to search for podcasts, including Podcast Alley, Podcast Pickle, Englishcaster, or the Internet TESL Journal's links.
Listening and Podcasting
Teaching listening by using podcast is possible to increase student listening comprehension as podcast provide students with authentic and contextual material and it can improve students’ knowledge because they share their podcast.
Podcasting offers an ideal tool for the creative expression of knowledge preferred by today's students, and provides an exciting way for students and educators to explore and discover listening content or material. Podcasts are audio or video files that are automatically delivered over a network, and then played back on any Mac, PC, or iPod. When students create a podcast for class, they not only learn the content in a creative way, they learn 21st-century communications skills at the same time.
Podcasting allows teachers to take their students beyond traditional assignments by allowing them to include voice recordings, photos, movies, and sound effects to share their knowledge. For example, students can draft and perform scripts as a writing assignment, create a visual progress report for an ongoing project, or submit a recorded version of a science presentation.
Podcasting is also a great way for teachers to deliver listening content to their students. They can distribute homework assignments, record book narration for beginning readers to read along with, or create foreign language lessons that students can review at their own pace.
3. Research Methodology
The research was conducted by implemented classroom action research. The aim of the research is to find out the effectiveness of podcast in teaching listening. Then also, it is to investigate whether or not podcast can improve students listening skill. The design of the research was classroom action research. The research was conducted at third semester of English department students in academic year 2007-2008. They were having subject of listening III. The research involves three cycles to see the effectiveness of the media to improve students listening skill.
First cycle
At first cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson is to see whether students can understand the short conversation or speech in podcast. At this stage two materials through podcast program were given to students. The duration of one podcast not more than one minute
Second cycle
At second cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson is to see whether students can understand the long conversation or speech in podcast. At this stage two podcast was given to students. The duration of podcast not more than three minutes
Third cycle
At third cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson s to see whether students can understand the long the conversation or speech in podcast and they can retell them. At this stage two podcast was given to students. The duration of podcast is not more than five minutes.
4. Discussion
Student Listening Comprehension On Short Conversation
At first cycles, students were given short podcast material. The duration of podcast material is not more than one minutes. At this cycles students seems busy with their PC. They try to operate podacst through ITune program. Most of them can operate it well. Simply, they only click the available material which provided by teacher.
At this cycle students were interested to new podcasting program which set up in learning listening. Students, previously, were given some instructions how to operate podcast program. Start from turning on the program until they are able to listen material. Some students still have difficulties how to turn on the program. They directly ask to teacher and some students ask to their friend who can run the program. When all students can operate the computer with podcast program, they seem busy listen to the material. The material is about environment which has one minute duration, however they can repeat many times.
To know the improvement of podacsting program in teaching listening students were given pretest and posttest. Before they have podcast material, they were given listening pre test on short conversation. The result of pre test, they get average score 64. It means that students ability on listening short comprehension still on average rate. Then student were given podcast material on listening. They seem motivated and eager to practice many times. Surprisingly, the result of post test was better than pretest. They got average score 87. It showed us that podcast media can increase students’ listening comprehension on short conversation
Students Listening Comprehension On Long Conversation
At the second and third cycle, students were given long conversations or speeches. The duration is about three to five minutes. Pre test was conducted previously, before they had podcast material. It is to see the effectiveness of podcast as media for teaching listening. The result of pretest, students got average score 65. Most of student are able to catch the main idea, however they still have problem with specific information, especially to find out about the number. After they had had podcast as media for teaching listening, they got improvement. Students’ average score was increasing 85. Most of students get score more than 70, and only a small number got 65. Similar to second cycle, at third cycle students listening comprehension score is also increasing. The average of pretest score is 64 and posttest score is 87.
5. Conclusion And Suggestion
Based on the result above, it can be concluded that podcast significantly effect students’ listening comprehension. There is improvement of students’ score after they had material through podcasting program. The improvement is not only on comprehension short conversation but also on long conversation.
Students’ motivation in learning listening is increasing. It can be seen from students’ activities. They repeat the material several times more than three times. They will stop when they have understood the material. Also, students’ interest, they like the material of listening as it is contextual and authentic material.
Podcasting program is helpful for teachers. Teacher only prepared some materials or download material which suitable for students’ level and goal of learning. The rest, teachers only give some instruction when it is needed.
Podcasting give some advantages for teaching listening. Podcasting allows us to download and/or subscribe to audio programs (in the form of MP3 files) which appropriate with our teaching goal. The material is then easily be transferred to a portable MP3 player. Finally, podcasts exist on a variety of topics, so teacher can choose which topic suitable for teaching listening. Teacher can download from several links such as school podcasting or language institution podcasting.
As suggestion, since podcasting can be implemented in teaching listening, firstly, teachers are suggested to use this media as an alternative media to improve students listening comprehension. Secondly, schools or institutions should provide their language laboratory with multimedia program connected to internet. Thus, it helps teachers and students to gain authentic and contextual material. Finally, it is suggested to other researchers to conducted further research on other skill such as the usage of podcasting in improving student’s communication skill.
References
Chinnery, G. M. (2007). Going to the MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology, 10(1), 9-16.
Goodwin-Jones, R. (2005). Emerging Technologies: Skype and Podcasting: Disruptive Technologies for Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology, 9(3), 9-12.
http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/ict/podcasting.htm
Lee, B. (2007, February 19). Podcasts transforming campus life. The Monterey County Herald.
McCarty, S. (2005). Spoken Internet To Go: Popularization through Podcasting. JALT CALL, 1(2), 67-74
Stanley, G. (2006). Podcasting: Audio on the Internet Comes of Age. TESL-EJ, 9(4).
Thorne, S. and J. Payne (2005). Evolutionary Trajectories, Internetmediated Expression, and Language Education. CALICO, 22(3), 371-397.
Earp, Samantha. More Than Just the Internet: Technology for Language Teaching. ERIC Digest . http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-2/internet.htm
.
By
Yudi Juniardi
yjuniardi@yahoo.com (Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University)
I. Introduction
Listening is one of language skills that for students still difficult to master. It can be seen from students’ achievement of TOEFL. Their scores in listening are still low if it compares to others skills such as reading comprehension and written expression.
In learning a language, listening is one skill that should be acquired at early stage before other skills such as speaking, reading and writing. After listening some one will learn to speak a word or sentence that he or she heard. In learning a foreign language, for instance English, learning listening is not only study the utterances or word that we heard but learners should learn the utterances that happened in real context or situational context
The explanation above is appropriate for Indonesia which applies CBC (Competency based curriculum) that more focus on how students acquire competencies for their future relating with their daily live. In CBC, CTL (contextual teaching and Learning) as an approach is applied as students should learn from real context or what they see and do in their daily live. However, still, the students’ ability in listening skill is low. They find difficulties in understanding native speeches or utterances, especially in daily activity context.
There are some steps to overcome this problem: firstly, increasing frequency of listening native speaker. Secondly, using multimedia can encourage, stimulate and motivate students in learning listening. last but not the lest, giving contextual and situational sources of learning. material.
To overcome the problem above, applying multimedia can be one of solution as it has some advantages for improving students’ listening skill. By using multimedia students not only hear the sound but also can capture the pictures, moreover by using multimedia a teacher can download native voice as a source material for teaching listening. One of the programs that can be applied is podcast program.
Podcast is a program that can be applied in learning listening. By operating podcast it can operate music, news, TV program etc. podcast has two files audio (MP3) and video (MP4). These files can be down load free of charge fromwww.cnn.com. One of example can be down loaded from CNN is Larry King Live Podcast.
Another example, which is also interesting to be used as the teaching material, is taken from www.invisiblechildren.com . There are many videos which can be downloaded by subscribing to the website using iTunes.
These two examples are few of many others materials that can be freely downloaded from the internet by subscribing to the website using iTunes. The capacity of each file is varied (about 3 to 100 Mb) according to duration of the podcast. For instance, it takes at least one and a half hour to download a 15 minutes Larry King Live Podcast.
Relate to the explanation above, to overcome students difficulties in listening skill, a research has been done. The research is to investigate whether podcast can be a multimedia that can be applied to overcome students listening skill difficulties.
The aim of the research is .to find out the effectiveness of podcast in teaching listening. To investigate whether podcast can improve students listening skill. The design of the research is classroom action research. The research was conducted at third semester of English department students in academic year 2007-2008. They were having subject of listening III. The research involves three cycles to see the effectiveness of the media to improve students listening skill.
2. Literature review
Listening
Listening, like reading comprehension, is usually defined as a receptive skill comprising both a physical process and an interpretive, analytical process. (See Lundsteen 1979 for a discussion of listening.) However, this definition is often expanded to include critical listening skills (higher-order skills such as analysis and synthesis) and nonverbal listening (comprehending the meaning of tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.)
Podcast
A podcast is not simply a link to an MP3 file that your customers can download off your Web page. While it is certainly possible for someone to listen to your recording on their iPod or other MP3 player, just putting the MP3 up does not make it a podcast.
A podcast is an MP3 or other audio file delivered off a Web site via an RSS feed. Podcast is derived from the terms "iPod" and "broadcast". It is attributed to the original creators of podcasting who used iPods to listen to their RSS broadcasts. Then Apple added an RSS reader to the iTunes software, making it simple for anyone with an iPod to subscribe and listen to podcasts. All you need to know is the URL of the RSS or XML.
Usage of podcasts
The term podcast means a digital recording of a radio broadcast or similar program, made available on the internet for downloading to a personal audio player. There are some reasons why we use podcast: firstly, the use & circulation of Podcasts is constantly increasing in popularity. Next, for the purpose of teaching languages, it is useful as a tool to activate the language, as students get to listen to the correct pronunciation of the words they have studied and then listen to examples of them in real life situations. Last but not the least; Podcasts can be listened to everywhere, not only on computers, but also, with digital portable music players (such as iPod or Zune.)
Podcasts Subscription
Not similar to radio, we can listen to MP3 files at any time. However, podcasts combine the ability to subscribe to a Web site and learn about any new additions immediately with the MP3 downloads. So, unlike radio, when you sign up for a podcast, you can listen to either older editions of the podcast, or you can wait until the author creates and uploads a new one. You then set up your iPod to check periodically for updates. When a new podcast recording is available, iTunes downloads automatically. Podcasts can update as often as the author has time to make a recording. For example, some of the podcasts I subscribe to only update once a month or so. While others update daily and sometimes more often than that.
Previous research
Research on podcast has been done before by some researchers. Based on previous research, Chinnery, G. M. (2007). Turkish language students were able to use their iPods for listening to authentic songs and other audio materials. While uses of iPods and, more recently, podcasting are on the rise, Chinnery voices concerns about possible poor audio quality, limited availability (although mobile labs are one suggestion for combating this problem), lack of a cultural context, and limited social interaction.
Then, according to Lee, B. (2007, February 19) Lecturers are providing recording versions of their lectures in podcast format, deliverable with iTunesU. Lee interviews one ESL professor, Bob Cole, who podcasted teacher-training conferences for his graduate CALL course. Cole reported that "It kind of raised the level of the classroom discussion having it recorded." In addition to increasing the level of class discussion, students say they are using podcasts to review lecture information they may have missed; these recorded lectures come in handy when it comes to test time. Podcasting is reportedly just the beginning for online learning at Monterey's Naval Postgraduate school, which is also looking into using scenario-based interactive games.
Last but not the least, Stanley, G. (2006). In his paper : Podcasting: Audio on the Internet Comes of Age discusses issues related to audio and video podcasting, as well as webcasting, that are of interest to language teachers thinking about integrating these new technologies into their classrooms. Stanley begins with a brief overview of what podcasting is and how podcasts work, and then discusses possibilities for using podcasts in the language classroom, including as a supplement to textbook materials, as a source for authentic listening materials, and as a way for students to gain information on specific aspects of the language, such as idiomatic expressions or grammatical constructions. Stanley recommends many places to search for podcasts, including Podcast Alley, Podcast Pickle, Englishcaster, or the Internet TESL Journal's links.
Listening and Podcasting
Teaching listening by using podcast is possible to increase student listening comprehension as podcast provide students with authentic and contextual material and it can improve students’ knowledge because they share their podcast.
Podcasting offers an ideal tool for the creative expression of knowledge preferred by today's students, and provides an exciting way for students and educators to explore and discover listening content or material. Podcasts are audio or video files that are automatically delivered over a network, and then played back on any Mac, PC, or iPod. When students create a podcast for class, they not only learn the content in a creative way, they learn 21st-century communications skills at the same time.
Podcasting allows teachers to take their students beyond traditional assignments by allowing them to include voice recordings, photos, movies, and sound effects to share their knowledge. For example, students can draft and perform scripts as a writing assignment, create a visual progress report for an ongoing project, or submit a recorded version of a science presentation.
Podcasting is also a great way for teachers to deliver listening content to their students. They can distribute homework assignments, record book narration for beginning readers to read along with, or create foreign language lessons that students can review at their own pace.
3. Research Methodology
The research was conducted by implemented classroom action research. The aim of the research is to find out the effectiveness of podcast in teaching listening. Then also, it is to investigate whether or not podcast can improve students listening skill. The design of the research was classroom action research. The research was conducted at third semester of English department students in academic year 2007-2008. They were having subject of listening III. The research involves three cycles to see the effectiveness of the media to improve students listening skill.
First cycle
At first cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson is to see whether students can understand the short conversation or speech in podcast. At this stage two materials through podcast program were given to students. The duration of one podcast not more than one minute
Second cycle
At second cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson is to see whether students can understand the long conversation or speech in podcast. At this stage two podcast was given to students. The duration of podcast not more than three minutes
Third cycle
At third cycles, the planning was implemented podcasting as a media for teaching listening. The aim of this lesson s to see whether students can understand the long the conversation or speech in podcast and they can retell them. At this stage two podcast was given to students. The duration of podcast is not more than five minutes.
4. Discussion
Student Listening Comprehension On Short Conversation
At first cycles, students were given short podcast material. The duration of podcast material is not more than one minutes. At this cycles students seems busy with their PC. They try to operate podacst through ITune program. Most of them can operate it well. Simply, they only click the available material which provided by teacher.
At this cycle students were interested to new podcasting program which set up in learning listening. Students, previously, were given some instructions how to operate podcast program. Start from turning on the program until they are able to listen material. Some students still have difficulties how to turn on the program. They directly ask to teacher and some students ask to their friend who can run the program. When all students can operate the computer with podcast program, they seem busy listen to the material. The material is about environment which has one minute duration, however they can repeat many times.
To know the improvement of podacsting program in teaching listening students were given pretest and posttest. Before they have podcast material, they were given listening pre test on short conversation. The result of pre test, they get average score 64. It means that students ability on listening short comprehension still on average rate. Then student were given podcast material on listening. They seem motivated and eager to practice many times. Surprisingly, the result of post test was better than pretest. They got average score 87. It showed us that podcast media can increase students’ listening comprehension on short conversation
Students Listening Comprehension On Long Conversation
At the second and third cycle, students were given long conversations or speeches. The duration is about three to five minutes. Pre test was conducted previously, before they had podcast material. It is to see the effectiveness of podcast as media for teaching listening. The result of pretest, students got average score 65. Most of student are able to catch the main idea, however they still have problem with specific information, especially to find out about the number. After they had had podcast as media for teaching listening, they got improvement. Students’ average score was increasing 85. Most of students get score more than 70, and only a small number got 65. Similar to second cycle, at third cycle students listening comprehension score is also increasing. The average of pretest score is 64 and posttest score is 87.
5. Conclusion And Suggestion
Based on the result above, it can be concluded that podcast significantly effect students’ listening comprehension. There is improvement of students’ score after they had material through podcasting program. The improvement is not only on comprehension short conversation but also on long conversation.
Students’ motivation in learning listening is increasing. It can be seen from students’ activities. They repeat the material several times more than three times. They will stop when they have understood the material. Also, students’ interest, they like the material of listening as it is contextual and authentic material.
Podcasting program is helpful for teachers. Teacher only prepared some materials or download material which suitable for students’ level and goal of learning. The rest, teachers only give some instruction when it is needed.
Podcasting give some advantages for teaching listening. Podcasting allows us to download and/or subscribe to audio programs (in the form of MP3 files) which appropriate with our teaching goal. The material is then easily be transferred to a portable MP3 player. Finally, podcasts exist on a variety of topics, so teacher can choose which topic suitable for teaching listening. Teacher can download from several links such as school podcasting or language institution podcasting.
As suggestion, since podcasting can be implemented in teaching listening, firstly, teachers are suggested to use this media as an alternative media to improve students listening comprehension. Secondly, schools or institutions should provide their language laboratory with multimedia program connected to internet. Thus, it helps teachers and students to gain authentic and contextual material. Finally, it is suggested to other researchers to conducted further research on other skill such as the usage of podcasting in improving student’s communication skill.
References
Chinnery, G. M. (2007). Going to the MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology, 10(1), 9-16.
Goodwin-Jones, R. (2005). Emerging Technologies: Skype and Podcasting: Disruptive Technologies for Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology, 9(3), 9-12.
http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/ict/podcasting.htm
Lee, B. (2007, February 19). Podcasts transforming campus life. The Monterey County Herald.
McCarty, S. (2005). Spoken Internet To Go: Popularization through Podcasting. JALT CALL, 1(2), 67-74
Stanley, G. (2006). Podcasting: Audio on the Internet Comes of Age. TESL-EJ, 9(4).
Thorne, S. and J. Payne (2005). Evolutionary Trajectories, Internetmediated Expression, and Language Education. CALICO, 22(3), 371-397.
Earp, Samantha. More Than Just the Internet: Technology for Language Teaching. ERIC Digest . http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-2/internet.htm
.
Jumat, 25 April 2008
Classroom Action Research
CLASSROOM ACTION RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
Yudi Juniardi and John Pahamzah
Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University – Banten
Abstract
The problems of this research are: firstly, what procedures do teachers applied in their classroom action research? Secondly, how teachers conduct their researches. This papers intended to analyze the procedures of conducting CAR which done by teachers and to see deeply teachers activities when they conducting the research. The method of this research is descriptive qualitative. The subjects of the research are those English teachers who conducted CAR. The writer analyzes eight CAR conducted by teachers who had followed CAR workshop therefore sources of data in this writing are teachers’ works, teachers’ information, and literature studies. Object of this research is teachers’ works or projects. The data analyzed by following procedures: collecting the data, selecting the data, tabulating the data, interpreting the data, and display the data.
The results of the research show us that teachers have followed procedures appropriately based on CAR design. They have analyzed the data qualitatively and quantitatively and the result of their research illustrated the average score improvement of students’ achievement
Key words: teacher, action research, language teaching
I. Introduction
Teachers as professional in teaching keep improving their teaching through CAR (Classroom Action Research). They do planning, implementing, analyzing and evaluating, every single thing they found in teaching process. All those process involve in CAR.
CAR is done to improve and to increase teaching process continuously. Therefore, it is one of strategies in increasing educational service that should be done in the context of increasing school or education quality. The main point of this research, improving teaching process, can be achieved by doing reflecting in diagnosing situation.
Car is situational. It means that it should relate to certain context or situation. Research problem can be proposed from daily activity in teaching process which students or teachers feel. And Cars is conducted to improve and to increase education quality, students’ achievement by doing reflection.
It is a collaborative activity between teacher and students. For teachers, this activity can improve quality of their professionals and for students, they can increase their achievement. However it also can be set up between teacher and headmaster. This research is also a participatory research. It means that everybody has taken apart in doing this research from beginning until the end.
Car is self-evaluative. We conduct it continuously, and keep evaluating the program by having final aim to increase the quality of teaching. Furthermore, it is also flexible. Teachers do some adaptation depend on the situation and setting in the class when teachers conducting the research.
It uses of observation and teacher keep collecting the data during the teaching process. We discuss the data collaboratively with other teachers and students to make some revision or improvement for the action. The improvement of the program is analyzed carefully from time to time. To analyze the improvement we conduct formative evaluation.
There are four steps when we conduct CAR sustainable: planning, action, observation and reflection (PAOR). Planning involves thinking process and evaluating to reflect the events that have been happened and attempting to find out ways to overcome problems encountered. At this step, some problems will be exposed and teacher as researcher should think up to find out some alternative ways or actions to overcome the problems. Next step is Action. At this step, we think and consider what action will be done, how method will be applied, and what material will be provided. Actions are some activity that will be alternative ways to overcome the problem and it is designed in planning step.
Observation is some activities that consist of gathering data to identify the result of action. Collecting data can be considered from several factors: students, teacher, interaction students and teacher. Observation process can be done by teacher or assist by other such as other teachers, consultant, head master, etc. If CAR involves other people, we call this research Collaborative Action Research. Teacher at this step does note taking, recording the data objectively.
Reflection is activity to verify the fairness of data and interpret the data for doing some improvement and revision in other to enhance the successful of teaching. Verification is conducted by asking students to check the fairness data that gathered in observation. In interpreting the data a teacher can discuss with his or her colleague, supervisor, and consultant. By involving others in verification process, interpreting and rechecking data called triangulation. Based on triangulation process a teacher through CAR can identify, formulate, and do remedial activity and plan or design an action for next cycle.
Recently, CAR is encouraged and supported to be set in some schools. Government is also contributed to this program by donating the research grant to teachers. In line with that, Research Institute of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University conducted CAR workshop for teachers. The aim of this research was to provide teachers with ability in conducting CAR; starting from composing proposal, conducting research, and reporting the research. When Teachers conducted the researches, they collaborated with Untirta lecturers.
Relate to the illustration above, the focus this research is intended to analyze how teachers conducted their CAR. There are research problems of this research, firstly, what procedures do teachers applied in their CAR? Secondly, how do they conduct their researches?
2. Literature Review
The concept of action research can be traced back to the early works of John Dewey in the 1920s and Kurt Lewin in the 1940s, but it is Stephen Corey and others at Teachers College of Columbia University who introduced the term action research to the educational community in 1949. Teacher action research is referred to in the literature as action research, practitioner research, teacher-as-scholar, practical inquiry, interactive research, classroom inquiry, or practice-centred research (Downhower, Melvin & Sizemore, 1990). This type of self-driven, individualized research is a tool teachers can use to develop, reflect, and improve their teaching styles and pedagogical practices.
Some of the most beneficial things about teacher action research are that it is small scale, contextualized, localized, and aimed at discovering, developing, or monitoring changes to practice (Wallace, 2000). Therefore, every project can take on the needs of the specific situation while following a relatively similar format as a guide. What differentiates action research from other types of social study is that it results in concrete actions that can be implemented. Each of the following teachers’ projects began with a set of guidelines that can be used in any teaching situation to open a research process.
These are the guidelines typically used in teacher action research:
Identify a puzzlement/inquiry
Decide in a systematic way how to go about answering that question
Develop a timeline to carry out the project – one week, a month, a grading period or even a full academic year.
Decide how data will be collected and analyzed
Implement study – data collection and analysis
Report and share findings
O’Brien (1998) classified action research into four types: traditional action research, contextual action research, radical action research, and educational action research. In this paper, the researches were conducted by teachers are educational classroom action research on language teaching. Educational classroom action research considered professional education should be involved in solving society problem. By applying this research, collaboration among teacher, lecturer, students was encouraged.
There are six principles in conducting Classroom Action Research (Winter ,1998 in O’Brien 1998), namely: Reflective critique, dialectic critique, collaborative sources, risk taking, complex structure, and theory, practice, and transformation.
Marjorie Hall Haley’s (2004, 2001) work examined foreign and second language teachers engaged in action research to explore the impact of Multiple Intelligences (MI)-based teaching. In the first two phases of this ongoing research, Hall Haley enlisted the help of primary and secondary language teachers from around the country and from Australia, Hong Kong, and Germany (2004: 167-169). These educators collaborated with each other and with Hall Haley to develop ways to apply MI theory to both instructional strategies and assessment practices. Data showed that “learner-centered instruction from the perspective of multiple intelligences…. demonstrated students’ strengths and weaknesses can be affected by a teacher’s pedagogical style” (2004: 171).
3. Methods
The method of this research is qualitative. It described how teachers conducted their CAR. Subject of the research is eight teachers who have conducted CAR . Sources of the data are teachers and their CAR reports. To verify the data, it applied triangulation sources; the data was not only from teacher, teachers’ reports, but also from documentation and literature studies. Content analysis was conducted to investigate how teachers conducted their CAR. Tabulating, interpreting, and display were done in analyzing data.
4. Results and Discussion
Classroom Action Research (CAR)
There are eight CAR conducted by teachers from Junior high school and senior high school in Banten province. The research conducted in language teaching. Teachers did the research for two months at their schools. The following are the titles:
Table 1 Research Title
No
Title
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The efforts to increase students ability in using metaphor in making essay through process approach at grade VI SDN KADUBUNGBANG 1 2006/2007 year
The efforts to increase students’ ability and interest in reading through effective reading technique at grade V SDN MALANGNENGAH 01 Cibaliung
The efforts to increase students’ listening achievement through VCD material at grade III A SMPN 3 panimbang – pandeglang
The efforts to increase students’ ability in Readin AL-Quran through practicing method at Grade VI SDN CURUG PANJANG III Cikulur -. Lebak
The efforts to increase students’ narrative writing skill by using picture through inquiry method at grade IX SMPN 2 Pandeglang 2006 year
The efforts to increase students’ narrative writing skill by using picture through inquiry method at grade IX SMPN 2 Pandeglang 2006 year
The efforts to increase students’ descriptive writing skill by using Study Tour Method at grade VI SDN Perdana I
The efforts to increase students’ descriptive writing through process skill approach at grade V SDN 3 pandeglang 2006 year.
From the table above all of the CAR title beginning with ‘the efforts to increase….’ And the variables which improve teaching and learning process are: approaches, techniques, methods, and instrument.
If we see the dependent variable, there are three skills from eight researches: six writing skills, one listening skill, and one reading skill. Subject of the research are students of Elementary schools and junior high school.
Research method
According to Baskerville and Wood-Harper (1996) in Baskerville (1999) there are seven key strategies in conducting action research: considering paradigm shift, deciding a formal research agreement, deciding problem statement, planning data collecting method, maintaining collaboration, repeating or cycling, making generalization.
How teachers research method in conducting their CAR? Eights CAR reports provided their research methods with: Research setting, CAR procedures, Data collecting technique, Data analyzing technique.
Cycles
Cycles are characteristics in doing Class room Action research. Each cycle provides some activities, namely: Plan, Action, Observation, and Reflect (Kemmis in MacIsaac, 1996). Susman’s cycle is more complex. He provided five activities in each cycle: diagnosing (identifying or defining a problem), Action Planning (considering alternative course of action), taking action (selecting a course of action), evaluating (studying the consequences of an action), specifying learning (identifying general findings).
Having analyzed teachers’ research report, all of their CARS did more than one cycle: seven Cars conduct two cycles and one Car conducted three cycles. Every cycle involved with planning, acting, observing, and reflection. So, teachers’ research cycle refers to Kemmis model.
Data Collecting Technique
There are two types of data collecting technique: qualitative and quantitative technique. The technique shown at table 2
Table 2. Data Collecting Technique
No
Qualitative technique
Quantitative technique
R1
Observation
Students’ evaluation
R2
Observation, interview, diary,
Documentation.
Reading test
R3
Observation, Journal, photo
Listening test s
R4
Observation, interview, diary,
Documentation.
Formative tests
R5
Observation, Journal, photo
Formative tests
R6
Observation, Journal, photo
Writing formative tests
R7
Observation, diary journal, photo
Writing formative tests
R8
Observation, diary note, questionnaire
Pretest, formative 1, formative 2
Analyzing Data
How teachers analyzed data.? They analyzed data based on the sources of data. Mostly, their sources of data are students work: students’ scores, students’ interviews, students activities, and students’ documentation. How they analyzed data shown at table 3.
Table 3. Analyzing Data
No
Analyzing data
R1
Conducting observation which assisted by partner.
Describe the diary and test result
R2
Conducting observation which assisted by partner.
Scoring the result of observation: (1+2+3+4+5)/5
Scoring test of reading skill. The result grouped into to 2 groups <65,>65.
R3
Using check list worksheet and scoring by using formulation A/B x 100%.
Describe journal data.
Grouping the result into 2 groups: > 65 and <65
R4
Experiencing, enquiring, examining
R5
Scoring the result of the test (pre test, formative 1, formative 2.)
R6
Students’ activity: total students activity
Students number
Essay score: maximal score X 100%
Students number
Completing study: total those whose got score
Total students number
R7
Observation, diary journal, photo
R8
Scoring the result of the test (pre test, formative 1, formative 2)
It can be seen from the table above, teachers analyzed data quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitavely, the data which analyzed was taken from the result of the tests. The ways how they analyzed the data were different, depend on what skill they researched. For instances, On R2 and R3, they grouped the scores into two group: > 65 and <65, to see the effectiveness of treatment in solving the problem. Qualitatively, teachers described the data from questionnaire, interview, diary, and documentation.
Discussion
Procedures in Conducting Research
Mostly in this research, teachers have applied classroom action research appropriately based on Kemmis model which begin with planning, action, observation and ended with reflection. 87% of teachers conducted their research using two cycles and 12.5% using three cycles. Most of them used two cycles because after cycle two, they have got significant improvement. However for teacher who conduct three cycles, he has the significant improvement after cycle three.
In planning activity, they discuss and decide teaching and learning design which they will be applied in cycle one. Then, he or she composing lesson plan that will be applied; next, deciding competence standard; the last, preparing diary journal and observation sheet.
In action activity, teachers conduct the design that has been decided and prepared in cycle one. It provides some activities: started with presentation the topics, giving task, and ended with evaluation. In observation, teachers do the observation and fill the findings on observation sheet and also they observe students’ formative test.
The last activity is reflection. Reflection is conducted to analyze what have been done and what has not, what has been success full and what have been not. Based on this data, it can be input to repair for next cycle to achieve the target of the research..
Conducting Their Researches
Collecting data. Based on the teachers CAR report, it can be stated that mostly 100% they used tests to investigate students’ ability or skills. Then they used some techniques to get the data such as, observation, journal, photo and interview. But mostly they used observation, diary Journal, and photo.
Analyzing the Data
Teachers analyzed the data qualitatively and quantitatively. The data was taken from pre test and formative tests were analyzed qualitatively. They did quantitatively to see the effectiveness of methods, techniques, or approaches in increasing students’ skills.
In contrast, the data got from observation, documentation, interview, and questionnaire were analyzed qualitatively. Teachers interpreting the data by giving some information based on the facts and the data.
5. Conclusion
From the result of the researches, it can be concluded the following remarks: firstly, Teachers have conducted their CAR based on CAR procedures. They conducted their researches, mostly for two cycles, each cycles provided with planning, action, observation, and reflection.
Secondly, they collected the data by giving students tests : pre-test, formative test, and conducting observation, documentation, and interview. And the collected data analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. The result of pre test, and formative tests wee analyzed quantitatively to find out whether or not any improvement. However, the collected data of observation, documentation, and questionnaire were analyzed qualitatively. Classroom action research has improved their qualities in teaching. It can be viewed from the reset of their researches, they have overcome their teaching problem and improve students’ achievement,, having improvement on the average of students’ achievements for 30%.
Based on the result and the discussion, there are some suggestions for the teachers. First, when scoring students’ Works, to be more objective, it’s better to have inter-rater. Second, if we provided our research with diary journal or interview, it would be better to display the transcription both of them. Third, it is important to be consistent. If we provide our data with the result of questionnaire, it must have questionnaire in collecting data technique. Fourth, before conducting CAR, teachers should conduct pretest previously, in order to know exactly, how far the improvement of Students’ achievement after conducting CAR and to see the effectiveness of method, technique, or approach. Finally, classroom action research gives a lot of benefit for institution to increase students’ quality. Therefore, institution or schools should give opportunity, support and facilities assistance to teachers to conduct CAR.
References
Baskeeville, Richard L. 1999. Investigating Information Systems with Action Research, In Communication of the association for Information System, Volume 2, retrieved from http://www.cis.gsu/~rbaskerv/CAIS_2_19/CAIS_2_19.html
Downhower, S., Melvin, M.P., & Sizemore, P. 1990. Improving writing instruction through teacher action research. Journal of Staff Development, 11(3), 22-27. EJ430614.
Haley, M.H., Midgely, A., Ortiz, J., Romano, T., Ashworth, L., & Seewald, A. 2005. Teacher Action Research in Foreign Language Classrooms: Four Teachers Tell Their Stories . Current Issues in Education [On-line], 8(12). Retrieved from http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume8/number12/ (29/11/2005)
Hall Haley, M.(2004. Learner-centered instruction and the theory of multiple intelligences with second language learners. Teachers College Record. Vol. 106, No. 1, 163-180.
Hall Haley, M. 2001. Understanding learner-centered instruction from the perspective of multiple intelligences. Foreign Language Annals. Vol. 34, No. 4, 355-367.
MacIsaac, Dan.1996. Introduction to Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.phisics.nau.edu/~danmac (30/11/2005)
Madison Metropolitan School District. Classroom Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.madison.k12.wi.us/sod/car/carisandisnot.html (30/12/2005)
O’Brien, Rory. 1998. An Overview of the methodological Approach of Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.web-net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html (29/11/2005)
Wallace, M.J. 2000. Action research for language teachers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Yudi Juniardi and John Pahamzah
Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University – Banten
Abstract
The problems of this research are: firstly, what procedures do teachers applied in their classroom action research? Secondly, how teachers conduct their researches. This papers intended to analyze the procedures of conducting CAR which done by teachers and to see deeply teachers activities when they conducting the research. The method of this research is descriptive qualitative. The subjects of the research are those English teachers who conducted CAR. The writer analyzes eight CAR conducted by teachers who had followed CAR workshop therefore sources of data in this writing are teachers’ works, teachers’ information, and literature studies. Object of this research is teachers’ works or projects. The data analyzed by following procedures: collecting the data, selecting the data, tabulating the data, interpreting the data, and display the data.
The results of the research show us that teachers have followed procedures appropriately based on CAR design. They have analyzed the data qualitatively and quantitatively and the result of their research illustrated the average score improvement of students’ achievement
Key words: teacher, action research, language teaching
I. Introduction
Teachers as professional in teaching keep improving their teaching through CAR (Classroom Action Research). They do planning, implementing, analyzing and evaluating, every single thing they found in teaching process. All those process involve in CAR.
CAR is done to improve and to increase teaching process continuously. Therefore, it is one of strategies in increasing educational service that should be done in the context of increasing school or education quality. The main point of this research, improving teaching process, can be achieved by doing reflecting in diagnosing situation.
Car is situational. It means that it should relate to certain context or situation. Research problem can be proposed from daily activity in teaching process which students or teachers feel. And Cars is conducted to improve and to increase education quality, students’ achievement by doing reflection.
It is a collaborative activity between teacher and students. For teachers, this activity can improve quality of their professionals and for students, they can increase their achievement. However it also can be set up between teacher and headmaster. This research is also a participatory research. It means that everybody has taken apart in doing this research from beginning until the end.
Car is self-evaluative. We conduct it continuously, and keep evaluating the program by having final aim to increase the quality of teaching. Furthermore, it is also flexible. Teachers do some adaptation depend on the situation and setting in the class when teachers conducting the research.
It uses of observation and teacher keep collecting the data during the teaching process. We discuss the data collaboratively with other teachers and students to make some revision or improvement for the action. The improvement of the program is analyzed carefully from time to time. To analyze the improvement we conduct formative evaluation.
There are four steps when we conduct CAR sustainable: planning, action, observation and reflection (PAOR). Planning involves thinking process and evaluating to reflect the events that have been happened and attempting to find out ways to overcome problems encountered. At this step, some problems will be exposed and teacher as researcher should think up to find out some alternative ways or actions to overcome the problems. Next step is Action. At this step, we think and consider what action will be done, how method will be applied, and what material will be provided. Actions are some activity that will be alternative ways to overcome the problem and it is designed in planning step.
Observation is some activities that consist of gathering data to identify the result of action. Collecting data can be considered from several factors: students, teacher, interaction students and teacher. Observation process can be done by teacher or assist by other such as other teachers, consultant, head master, etc. If CAR involves other people, we call this research Collaborative Action Research. Teacher at this step does note taking, recording the data objectively.
Reflection is activity to verify the fairness of data and interpret the data for doing some improvement and revision in other to enhance the successful of teaching. Verification is conducted by asking students to check the fairness data that gathered in observation. In interpreting the data a teacher can discuss with his or her colleague, supervisor, and consultant. By involving others in verification process, interpreting and rechecking data called triangulation. Based on triangulation process a teacher through CAR can identify, formulate, and do remedial activity and plan or design an action for next cycle.
Recently, CAR is encouraged and supported to be set in some schools. Government is also contributed to this program by donating the research grant to teachers. In line with that, Research Institute of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University conducted CAR workshop for teachers. The aim of this research was to provide teachers with ability in conducting CAR; starting from composing proposal, conducting research, and reporting the research. When Teachers conducted the researches, they collaborated with Untirta lecturers.
Relate to the illustration above, the focus this research is intended to analyze how teachers conducted their CAR. There are research problems of this research, firstly, what procedures do teachers applied in their CAR? Secondly, how do they conduct their researches?
2. Literature Review
The concept of action research can be traced back to the early works of John Dewey in the 1920s and Kurt Lewin in the 1940s, but it is Stephen Corey and others at Teachers College of Columbia University who introduced the term action research to the educational community in 1949. Teacher action research is referred to in the literature as action research, practitioner research, teacher-as-scholar, practical inquiry, interactive research, classroom inquiry, or practice-centred research (Downhower, Melvin & Sizemore, 1990). This type of self-driven, individualized research is a tool teachers can use to develop, reflect, and improve their teaching styles and pedagogical practices.
Some of the most beneficial things about teacher action research are that it is small scale, contextualized, localized, and aimed at discovering, developing, or monitoring changes to practice (Wallace, 2000). Therefore, every project can take on the needs of the specific situation while following a relatively similar format as a guide. What differentiates action research from other types of social study is that it results in concrete actions that can be implemented. Each of the following teachers’ projects began with a set of guidelines that can be used in any teaching situation to open a research process.
These are the guidelines typically used in teacher action research:
Identify a puzzlement/inquiry
Decide in a systematic way how to go about answering that question
Develop a timeline to carry out the project – one week, a month, a grading period or even a full academic year.
Decide how data will be collected and analyzed
Implement study – data collection and analysis
Report and share findings
O’Brien (1998) classified action research into four types: traditional action research, contextual action research, radical action research, and educational action research. In this paper, the researches were conducted by teachers are educational classroom action research on language teaching. Educational classroom action research considered professional education should be involved in solving society problem. By applying this research, collaboration among teacher, lecturer, students was encouraged.
There are six principles in conducting Classroom Action Research (Winter ,1998 in O’Brien 1998), namely: Reflective critique, dialectic critique, collaborative sources, risk taking, complex structure, and theory, practice, and transformation.
Marjorie Hall Haley’s (2004, 2001) work examined foreign and second language teachers engaged in action research to explore the impact of Multiple Intelligences (MI)-based teaching. In the first two phases of this ongoing research, Hall Haley enlisted the help of primary and secondary language teachers from around the country and from Australia, Hong Kong, and Germany (2004: 167-169). These educators collaborated with each other and with Hall Haley to develop ways to apply MI theory to both instructional strategies and assessment practices. Data showed that “learner-centered instruction from the perspective of multiple intelligences…. demonstrated students’ strengths and weaknesses can be affected by a teacher’s pedagogical style” (2004: 171).
3. Methods
The method of this research is qualitative. It described how teachers conducted their CAR. Subject of the research is eight teachers who have conducted CAR . Sources of the data are teachers and their CAR reports. To verify the data, it applied triangulation sources; the data was not only from teacher, teachers’ reports, but also from documentation and literature studies. Content analysis was conducted to investigate how teachers conducted their CAR. Tabulating, interpreting, and display were done in analyzing data.
4. Results and Discussion
Classroom Action Research (CAR)
There are eight CAR conducted by teachers from Junior high school and senior high school in Banten province. The research conducted in language teaching. Teachers did the research for two months at their schools. The following are the titles:
Table 1 Research Title
No
Title
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The efforts to increase students ability in using metaphor in making essay through process approach at grade VI SDN KADUBUNGBANG 1 2006/2007 year
The efforts to increase students’ ability and interest in reading through effective reading technique at grade V SDN MALANGNENGAH 01 Cibaliung
The efforts to increase students’ listening achievement through VCD material at grade III A SMPN 3 panimbang – pandeglang
The efforts to increase students’ ability in Readin AL-Quran through practicing method at Grade VI SDN CURUG PANJANG III Cikulur -. Lebak
The efforts to increase students’ narrative writing skill by using picture through inquiry method at grade IX SMPN 2 Pandeglang 2006 year
The efforts to increase students’ narrative writing skill by using picture through inquiry method at grade IX SMPN 2 Pandeglang 2006 year
The efforts to increase students’ descriptive writing skill by using Study Tour Method at grade VI SDN Perdana I
The efforts to increase students’ descriptive writing through process skill approach at grade V SDN 3 pandeglang 2006 year.
From the table above all of the CAR title beginning with ‘the efforts to increase….’ And the variables which improve teaching and learning process are: approaches, techniques, methods, and instrument.
If we see the dependent variable, there are three skills from eight researches: six writing skills, one listening skill, and one reading skill. Subject of the research are students of Elementary schools and junior high school.
Research method
According to Baskerville and Wood-Harper (1996) in Baskerville (1999) there are seven key strategies in conducting action research: considering paradigm shift, deciding a formal research agreement, deciding problem statement, planning data collecting method, maintaining collaboration, repeating or cycling, making generalization.
How teachers research method in conducting their CAR? Eights CAR reports provided their research methods with: Research setting, CAR procedures, Data collecting technique, Data analyzing technique.
Cycles
Cycles are characteristics in doing Class room Action research. Each cycle provides some activities, namely: Plan, Action, Observation, and Reflect (Kemmis in MacIsaac, 1996). Susman’s cycle is more complex. He provided five activities in each cycle: diagnosing (identifying or defining a problem), Action Planning (considering alternative course of action), taking action (selecting a course of action), evaluating (studying the consequences of an action), specifying learning (identifying general findings).
Having analyzed teachers’ research report, all of their CARS did more than one cycle: seven Cars conduct two cycles and one Car conducted three cycles. Every cycle involved with planning, acting, observing, and reflection. So, teachers’ research cycle refers to Kemmis model.
Data Collecting Technique
There are two types of data collecting technique: qualitative and quantitative technique. The technique shown at table 2
Table 2. Data Collecting Technique
No
Qualitative technique
Quantitative technique
R1
Observation
Students’ evaluation
R2
Observation, interview, diary,
Documentation.
Reading test
R3
Observation, Journal, photo
Listening test s
R4
Observation, interview, diary,
Documentation.
Formative tests
R5
Observation, Journal, photo
Formative tests
R6
Observation, Journal, photo
Writing formative tests
R7
Observation, diary journal, photo
Writing formative tests
R8
Observation, diary note, questionnaire
Pretest, formative 1, formative 2
Analyzing Data
How teachers analyzed data.? They analyzed data based on the sources of data. Mostly, their sources of data are students work: students’ scores, students’ interviews, students activities, and students’ documentation. How they analyzed data shown at table 3.
Table 3. Analyzing Data
No
Analyzing data
R1
Conducting observation which assisted by partner.
Describe the diary and test result
R2
Conducting observation which assisted by partner.
Scoring the result of observation: (1+2+3+4+5)/5
Scoring test of reading skill. The result grouped into to 2 groups <65,>65.
R3
Using check list worksheet and scoring by using formulation A/B x 100%.
Describe journal data.
Grouping the result into 2 groups: > 65 and <65
R4
Experiencing, enquiring, examining
R5
Scoring the result of the test (pre test, formative 1, formative 2.)
R6
Students’ activity: total students activity
Students number
Essay score: maximal score X 100%
Students number
Completing study: total those whose got score
Total students number
R7
Observation, diary journal, photo
R8
Scoring the result of the test (pre test, formative 1, formative 2)
It can be seen from the table above, teachers analyzed data quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitavely, the data which analyzed was taken from the result of the tests. The ways how they analyzed the data were different, depend on what skill they researched. For instances, On R2 and R3, they grouped the scores into two group: > 65 and <65, to see the effectiveness of treatment in solving the problem. Qualitatively, teachers described the data from questionnaire, interview, diary, and documentation.
Discussion
Procedures in Conducting Research
Mostly in this research, teachers have applied classroom action research appropriately based on Kemmis model which begin with planning, action, observation and ended with reflection. 87% of teachers conducted their research using two cycles and 12.5% using three cycles. Most of them used two cycles because after cycle two, they have got significant improvement. However for teacher who conduct three cycles, he has the significant improvement after cycle three.
In planning activity, they discuss and decide teaching and learning design which they will be applied in cycle one. Then, he or she composing lesson plan that will be applied; next, deciding competence standard; the last, preparing diary journal and observation sheet.
In action activity, teachers conduct the design that has been decided and prepared in cycle one. It provides some activities: started with presentation the topics, giving task, and ended with evaluation. In observation, teachers do the observation and fill the findings on observation sheet and also they observe students’ formative test.
The last activity is reflection. Reflection is conducted to analyze what have been done and what has not, what has been success full and what have been not. Based on this data, it can be input to repair for next cycle to achieve the target of the research..
Conducting Their Researches
Collecting data. Based on the teachers CAR report, it can be stated that mostly 100% they used tests to investigate students’ ability or skills. Then they used some techniques to get the data such as, observation, journal, photo and interview. But mostly they used observation, diary Journal, and photo.
Analyzing the Data
Teachers analyzed the data qualitatively and quantitatively. The data was taken from pre test and formative tests were analyzed qualitatively. They did quantitatively to see the effectiveness of methods, techniques, or approaches in increasing students’ skills.
In contrast, the data got from observation, documentation, interview, and questionnaire were analyzed qualitatively. Teachers interpreting the data by giving some information based on the facts and the data.
5. Conclusion
From the result of the researches, it can be concluded the following remarks: firstly, Teachers have conducted their CAR based on CAR procedures. They conducted their researches, mostly for two cycles, each cycles provided with planning, action, observation, and reflection.
Secondly, they collected the data by giving students tests : pre-test, formative test, and conducting observation, documentation, and interview. And the collected data analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. The result of pre test, and formative tests wee analyzed quantitatively to find out whether or not any improvement. However, the collected data of observation, documentation, and questionnaire were analyzed qualitatively. Classroom action research has improved their qualities in teaching. It can be viewed from the reset of their researches, they have overcome their teaching problem and improve students’ achievement,, having improvement on the average of students’ achievements for 30%.
Based on the result and the discussion, there are some suggestions for the teachers. First, when scoring students’ Works, to be more objective, it’s better to have inter-rater. Second, if we provided our research with diary journal or interview, it would be better to display the transcription both of them. Third, it is important to be consistent. If we provide our data with the result of questionnaire, it must have questionnaire in collecting data technique. Fourth, before conducting CAR, teachers should conduct pretest previously, in order to know exactly, how far the improvement of Students’ achievement after conducting CAR and to see the effectiveness of method, technique, or approach. Finally, classroom action research gives a lot of benefit for institution to increase students’ quality. Therefore, institution or schools should give opportunity, support and facilities assistance to teachers to conduct CAR.
References
Baskeeville, Richard L. 1999. Investigating Information Systems with Action Research, In Communication of the association for Information System, Volume 2, retrieved from http://www.cis.gsu/~rbaskerv/CAIS_2_19/CAIS_2_19.html
Downhower, S., Melvin, M.P., & Sizemore, P. 1990. Improving writing instruction through teacher action research. Journal of Staff Development, 11(3), 22-27. EJ430614.
Haley, M.H., Midgely, A., Ortiz, J., Romano, T., Ashworth, L., & Seewald, A. 2005. Teacher Action Research in Foreign Language Classrooms: Four Teachers Tell Their Stories . Current Issues in Education [On-line], 8(12). Retrieved from http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume8/number12/ (29/11/2005)
Hall Haley, M.(2004. Learner-centered instruction and the theory of multiple intelligences with second language learners. Teachers College Record. Vol. 106, No. 1, 163-180.
Hall Haley, M. 2001. Understanding learner-centered instruction from the perspective of multiple intelligences. Foreign Language Annals. Vol. 34, No. 4, 355-367.
MacIsaac, Dan.1996. Introduction to Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.phisics.nau.edu/~danmac (30/11/2005)
Madison Metropolitan School District. Classroom Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.madison.k12.wi.us/sod/car/carisandisnot.html (30/12/2005)
O’Brien, Rory. 1998. An Overview of the methodological Approach of Action Research. Retrieved from http://www.web-net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html (29/11/2005)
Wallace, M.J. 2000. Action research for language teachers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
quantitative research
DOING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Yudi Juniardi
Staf Pengajar FKIP Untirta dan STKIP Setia Budhi
Abstrak
Tujuan penulisan ini adalah untuk menggambarkan bagaimana melakukan penelitian kuantitatif dalam pengajaran Bahasa. Pendekatan digunakan dalam dalam penulisan ini adalah studi literatur. Setidaknya ada beberapa hal yang dibahas dalam makalah ini: penelitian kuantitatif, design penelitian, validitas dan reliabilitas, serta format laporan dalam penelitian. Output penulisan ini, diharapkan dengan adanya pemahaman tentang desain penelitian serta validitas dan reliabilitas instrument yang baik, pegiat bahasa dapat menghasilkan penelitian yang baik dan memberikan kontribusi bagi pengembangan Bahasa, khususnya dalam pengajaran Bahasa Inggris
Kata Kunci: Research, Quantitative, Applied Linguistics
1. Introduction
Doing a research is a compulsory for students of university, since it is as one of the requirement of graduation. However we still find many students having difficulties in doing a research especially when they will conduct a quantitative research. Some difficulties are how to design a research, how to decide a research method, how to analyze the data, and how to prepare a research report.
To assists students in doing a research, sharing and discussion is needed. One can do a research if she or he understands the systematic way of doing a research. Furthermore he needs to know the way in formulating instruments of the research and interpreting collected data.
We should understand how to conduct a quantitative research. By knowing the sequence, the procedure, and the practice, it will make the students found of conducting researches. Students will acquire many advantages if they often do researches because doing a research gives a good implication for developing knowledge. To share practically my ideas about quantitative research in applied linguistics, on this paper, I shall only discuss a quantitative research in a glance, which covers research design, methods and research report.
2. Quantitative research
Quantitative research put emphasis on the use of quantitative methods (E.g. Descriptive statistics research, correlational research, etc.). The following are some characteristics of quantitative research:
- Quantitative research looks for facts and causes of situation from an over all view rather than from individual viewpoint.
- Quantitative research prefers controlled setting
- Quantitative research is objective
- Quantitative research is undertaken by a researcher outside the situation under study.
- Quantitative research tends to be hypothesis led and deductive
- Looks for reliable, replicable data
- Is concerned that results should be generalisable.
- Assumes a reality that is stable.
3. Research design, methods, and strategies
When we attempt to conduct a research, design decisions will depend on the purpose of the research, the nature of the problem, and the alternative appropriate for its investigation.
Once the purposes have been decided, the study should have explicit scope and direction, and attention can be focused on a delimited target area. The nature of the problem then plays the major role in determining what approaches are suitable.
According to Issac and Michael (1981) designs alternatives can be organized into nine functional categories based on these differing problem characteristics:
historical
descriptive
developmental
case or field
correlational
causal comparative
true experimental
quasi experimental, and
action
In this paper, I attempt to explain only correlational, causal comparative, true experimental, and quasi-experimental since these designs most common used in applied linguistic research.
Correlational research
Purpose of this research is to study the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variation in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficients. Correlation studies permit us to determine the extent to which scores on one test are associated with scores on another test.
Examples:
A study investigating the relationship between grade point average as the criterion variable and a number of other variables interest or;
Relationship between reading speed and reading comprehension scores,
Relationship between Ss’ number of turn talk in the classroom and their final grades.
Characteristics of this research:
Appropriate where variables are very complex and or do not lend themselves to the experimental method and controlled manipulation.
Permits the measurement of several variables and their interrelationship simultaneously and in a realistic setting.
Gets at the degree of relationship rather than the all-or-nothing question posed by experimental design: “is an effect present or absent?”
The limitation of the correlational studies as follow:
a. it only identify what goes with what- it does not necessarily identify cause and effect relationship.
b. It is less rigorous than the experimental approach because it exercises less control over the independent variables.
c. It is prone to identify spurious relational patterns or elements, which have little or no reliability or validity.
d. The relational patterns are often arbitrary and ambiguous.
Steps in doing correlation:
a. Define the problem
b. Review the literature
c. Design the approach:
- Identify the relevant variables
- Select appropriate subjects
- Select or develop appropriate measuring instruments
- Select the correlational approach that fits the problem.
d. Collect the data
e. Analyze and interpret the results
Causal-comparative research
The Purpose of this research is to investigate possible cause and effect relationship by observing some existing consequence and searching back through the data for plausible causal factors. This is in contrast to the experimental method which collects its data under controlled condition in the present.
Examples:
1. To identify factors characterizing person having either high or low accident rates, using data in insurance company records, or
2. To look for patterns of behavior and achievement associated with age differences at the time of school entrance using descriptive data on behavior and achievement test scores in the cumulative pupil records of children currently in the sixth grade.
Principal characteristics of this research:
This research is ex post facto in nature, which means the data are collected after all events of interest have occurred. The investigator then takes one or more effects (dependent variables) and examines the data by going back through time, seeking out causes, relationship, and their meanings.
Steps:
- Define the problem
- Survey the literature.
- State the hypotheses
- List the assumption upon which the hypothesis and procedures will be based.
- Design the approach:
- Validate the data – gathering techniques
- Describe, analyze, and interpret the findings in clear, precise terms.
True experimental Research
The purpose of this research is to investigate possible cause and effect relationship by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the result to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment.
Characteristics of experimental designs:
Requires rigorous management of experimental variables and conditions either by direct control/manipulation or through randomization.
Typically uses a control group as a baseline against which to compare the groups receiving the experimental treatment.
Internal validity is the sine qua non of research design and the first objective of experimental methodology. It asks the question: did the experimental manipulation in this particular study really make a difference?
External validity is the second objective of experimental methodology. It asks the question: How representative are the findings can the results be generalized to similar circumstances and subjects?
Seven steps in experimental research:
survey the literature relating t the problem
identify and define the problem
formulate a problem hypothesis, deducing the consequences and defining basic terms and variables.
construct an experimental plan:
(1) identify all non experimental variables that might contaminate the experiment, and determine how to control them.
(2) Select a research design
(3) Select a sample of subject to represent a given population, assign subjects to groups, and assign experimental treatments to groups
(4) Select or construct and validate instruments to measure the out come of the experiment.
(5) Outline procedures for collecting the data and possibly conduct a pilot or “trial run” test to perfect the instrument or design.
(6) State the statistical or null hypothesis.
Conduct the experiments.
Reduce the raw data in a manner that will produce the best appraisal of the effect which is presumed to exist.
Apply an appropriate test of significance to determine the confidence one can place on the results of the study.
Quasi experimental Research
The purpose of this research is to approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researcher must clearly understand what compromise exist in the internal and external validity of his design and proceed within these limitations.
Characteristics of this research, Quasi experimental research typically involves applied setting where it is not possible to control all the relevant variables but only some of them. The researcher gets as close to the true experimental rigor as condition allow, carefully qualifying the importance exception and limitations. Step in doing quasi experimental the same with true experimental research, carefully recognizing each limitation to the internal and external validity of the design.
Quasi experimental designs are practical compromises between true experimentation and the nature of human language behaviour which we wish to investigate.
By using Quasi experimental design, we control as many variables as we can and also limit the kinds of interpretations we make about cause- effect relationship and hedge the power of our generalization statements. Time series design allows us to do this.
T1 T2 T3 X T4 T5 T6
For example, suppose that we have developed a set of programmed materials to teach English tenses for the class of STKIP students. We haven’t been able to find similar groups to serve as control and experimental groups. We have only STKIP students who learn English. What we can carry out as follow:
a. We start administering tests on articles at the end of each week for the first three weeks of the class. By week for, you can see the improvement that your students have made in article usage.
b. Then we give them the programmed materials to work through.
c. Following this we start giving posttests on articles at the end of each week following the treatment.
d. A comparison of the curves for the first three weeks with those after the treatment will give you an idea whether your innovative materials worked or not. Your result of the research will come up with any of the following possibilities:
1
2
31
2
3
The picture above explains us if we obtained a line similar to line 1 it would show that there was no effect from our special treatment. The students continued the same developmental pattern that we saw during the first three weeks of the study. If the result were like those in line 2, it would indicate that our materials had a negative effect. Since after the treatment their scores declined consistently. Line 3 is the line we would hope to get, since it shows that our treatment was effective
Another version of the time series design is the equivalent time-sample design. It works like this: the treatment is introduced and re introduced between every other pretest and posttest. Then after the second pretest, an alternative treatment is introduced and that is followed by posttest. This procedure is followed for two or three times and the results following the experimental treatment are compared with the alternative treatment scores.
T1XT2 ---T3 0 T4 …T5 X T6 ….T7 0 T8, etc.
Ex Post facto designs
When researchers control the threats to internal and external validity, they are trying to find a direct relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In other words, they select the population, sample, treatment, and variables in order to find a cause and effect relationship between the variable.
Ex post facto designs are often used when the researcher does not have control over the selection and manipulation of the independent variable. This is why researchers look at the type of relationship between the two variables rather than at a cause and effect relationship.
Suppose we wanted to know about the performances of two groups of students (say one group from Banten and another one is out of Banten) on an entrance exam given to students of STKIP SB. Any relationship between the scores of the groups would not be related to any instructional program we had given them before test. That is why the designs are called ex post facto. The researcher has no control over what has already happened to the Ss. The treatment has been given prior to the research project.
Correllational designs are the most commonly used subset of ex post facto design. In correlational design a group of Ss may give us data on two different take the TOEFL. Many universities also have their own entrance exam which they administer to students. We can then look at the relationship of Ss’ scores on one test to their scores on the other. Or for example students have two test TOEFL and GRE (Graduate Record Exam) then the score for each S on one test can be compared with the score on the other, allowing us to see whether those students whose score high on one test also score high on the other.
The schematic representation of this design would be:
T1 T2
Another ex post facto design is called criterion group design. In this design two groups of Ss are compared on one measure. For example measure the reading speed of Indonesian and Malaysian students, assuming we want to see how related or different they might be. The design would look like this:
G1 T1
G2 T2
4. Validity and reliability
A good research has valid and reliable measurement. Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. On the other hand, reliability is the extent to which a measuring device is consistent in measuring whatever it measures.
Content validity
Content validity refers to the degree to which a test sample the content area which is to be measured. Ghiselle (1964) pointed out this is the type of validity educators are most concerned with.
Content validity is essentially and necessity based on judgment. The test makers may ask a number of experts to examine the items systematically and indicate whether or not they represent sufficiently well the theoretical universe from which they were drawn. It means that all major aspect of the content area must be adequately covered by the test items, and they must be in the correct proportions. All the major objectives of instruction must be included as well as the subject matter.
Predictive validity
Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a test can predict the future performance of individuals. A test has predictive validity when it can effectively indicate how a person will do on a later task.
Predictive validity is established empirically by correlating the test scores with subsequent measures on a criterion. The correlation coefficient become validity coefficient.
Construct validity
Construct validity refers to the extent to which a test reflect construct presumed to underlie the test performance and also the extent to which it is based on theories regarding these construct.
Construct validation utilizes both a logical and an empirical approach. In the construct validation of a test, one usually makes a number of inferences from theory and experiences regarding the trait to be tested, then attempts to find experimentally how well the test corresponds with these inferences.
Reliability
There are four commonly used methods for estimating the reliability of a test. Three of them: test – retest, equivalent forms, and split –half are based on correlational procedures; the other Kuder Richardson formula 21, is based on the proportion of subjects who get the items right or wrong.
Test – retest reliability is an obvious way to estimate the reliability of a test by administering it to the same group on two occasion and correlated the paired scores. The coefficient of correlation (Pearson r) between the scores of the subjects, obtained on the two administration of the test will give us an indication of its reliability.
The equivalent forms technique of estimating, Which is also referred to as the alternate or parallel form technique, is used when it is probable that subjects will recall a their responses to the test items. It correlates the results of equivalent forms of the test administered to the same individuals. If the two forms are administered at essentially the same time, the resulting reliability coefficient is called the coefficient of equivalence.
Split half reliability. It is possible to get a measure of reliability from a single administration of one form of a test by using split half procedures. The test is administered to a group of subjects, and later the items are divided into two comparable halves and a coefficient of correlation calculated between these two scores
Kuder Richardson Reliability. This method is by far the least time consuming of all the reliability estimation procedures. It involves only one administration of a test and employs only easily available information. The formula as follow:
r11 = Ksx2 – X (K-X)
sx2 (K-1)
r11= the reliability of the whole test
K = the number of item in the test
sx2= the variance of the scores
X = the mean of the scores
In interpreting of reliability coefficient, most test makers and researchers are satisfied if they obtain reliability coefficient of 0.90 and above but dissatisfied if they got coefficients below 0.70.
5. Report
The last step in doing a research is writing a research report. Dugdale (1967) gives the following format in writing a thesis report.
I. Preliminary pages
A. Title page
B. Acceptance page
C. Acknowledgement page
D. Table of content
E. List of tables
F. List of figures
II. Text
A. Introduction
1. Statement of the problem and justification for the study
2. Statement of the objectives
3. Definition of the term used (if necessary)
4. Review of the research relating to the topic
5. A brief account of the sources of the data and the methods and procedures used
B. Body of the report
1. detailed account of the sources of data and the methods and procedures used
2. presentation and analysis of the data
3. interpretation of the findings
A. Summary and conclusion
1. summary of the study
2. general conclusions drawn from the findings
3. recommendations
II. Supplementary pages
A. Bibliography
B. Appendix
C. Index
D. Vita (if required)
6. Conclusion
A quantitative research is different from a qualitative one. In doing this research we propose the research design and the method based on the purpose of the study and the problem of the research.
To make a good result in a quantitative research, the instrument should be valid and reliable. It means that the instrument measures what should be measured and has stability. It has appropriateness of the statistical treatment and data processing procedures.
Finally, the conclusion of the research should precise and accurate statement of the problem, the methodology followed, and the findings without the introduction of new or irrelevant information.
Yudi Juniardi
Staf Pengajar FKIP Untirta dan STKIP Setia Budhi
Abstrak
Tujuan penulisan ini adalah untuk menggambarkan bagaimana melakukan penelitian kuantitatif dalam pengajaran Bahasa. Pendekatan digunakan dalam dalam penulisan ini adalah studi literatur. Setidaknya ada beberapa hal yang dibahas dalam makalah ini: penelitian kuantitatif, design penelitian, validitas dan reliabilitas, serta format laporan dalam penelitian. Output penulisan ini, diharapkan dengan adanya pemahaman tentang desain penelitian serta validitas dan reliabilitas instrument yang baik, pegiat bahasa dapat menghasilkan penelitian yang baik dan memberikan kontribusi bagi pengembangan Bahasa, khususnya dalam pengajaran Bahasa Inggris
Kata Kunci: Research, Quantitative, Applied Linguistics
1. Introduction
Doing a research is a compulsory for students of university, since it is as one of the requirement of graduation. However we still find many students having difficulties in doing a research especially when they will conduct a quantitative research. Some difficulties are how to design a research, how to decide a research method, how to analyze the data, and how to prepare a research report.
To assists students in doing a research, sharing and discussion is needed. One can do a research if she or he understands the systematic way of doing a research. Furthermore he needs to know the way in formulating instruments of the research and interpreting collected data.
We should understand how to conduct a quantitative research. By knowing the sequence, the procedure, and the practice, it will make the students found of conducting researches. Students will acquire many advantages if they often do researches because doing a research gives a good implication for developing knowledge. To share practically my ideas about quantitative research in applied linguistics, on this paper, I shall only discuss a quantitative research in a glance, which covers research design, methods and research report.
2. Quantitative research
Quantitative research put emphasis on the use of quantitative methods (E.g. Descriptive statistics research, correlational research, etc.). The following are some characteristics of quantitative research:
- Quantitative research looks for facts and causes of situation from an over all view rather than from individual viewpoint.
- Quantitative research prefers controlled setting
- Quantitative research is objective
- Quantitative research is undertaken by a researcher outside the situation under study.
- Quantitative research tends to be hypothesis led and deductive
- Looks for reliable, replicable data
- Is concerned that results should be generalisable.
- Assumes a reality that is stable.
3. Research design, methods, and strategies
When we attempt to conduct a research, design decisions will depend on the purpose of the research, the nature of the problem, and the alternative appropriate for its investigation.
Once the purposes have been decided, the study should have explicit scope and direction, and attention can be focused on a delimited target area. The nature of the problem then plays the major role in determining what approaches are suitable.
According to Issac and Michael (1981) designs alternatives can be organized into nine functional categories based on these differing problem characteristics:
historical
descriptive
developmental
case or field
correlational
causal comparative
true experimental
quasi experimental, and
action
In this paper, I attempt to explain only correlational, causal comparative, true experimental, and quasi-experimental since these designs most common used in applied linguistic research.
Correlational research
Purpose of this research is to study the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variation in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficients. Correlation studies permit us to determine the extent to which scores on one test are associated with scores on another test.
Examples:
A study investigating the relationship between grade point average as the criterion variable and a number of other variables interest or;
Relationship between reading speed and reading comprehension scores,
Relationship between Ss’ number of turn talk in the classroom and their final grades.
Characteristics of this research:
Appropriate where variables are very complex and or do not lend themselves to the experimental method and controlled manipulation.
Permits the measurement of several variables and their interrelationship simultaneously and in a realistic setting.
Gets at the degree of relationship rather than the all-or-nothing question posed by experimental design: “is an effect present or absent?”
The limitation of the correlational studies as follow:
a. it only identify what goes with what- it does not necessarily identify cause and effect relationship.
b. It is less rigorous than the experimental approach because it exercises less control over the independent variables.
c. It is prone to identify spurious relational patterns or elements, which have little or no reliability or validity.
d. The relational patterns are often arbitrary and ambiguous.
Steps in doing correlation:
a. Define the problem
b. Review the literature
c. Design the approach:
- Identify the relevant variables
- Select appropriate subjects
- Select or develop appropriate measuring instruments
- Select the correlational approach that fits the problem.
d. Collect the data
e. Analyze and interpret the results
Causal-comparative research
The Purpose of this research is to investigate possible cause and effect relationship by observing some existing consequence and searching back through the data for plausible causal factors. This is in contrast to the experimental method which collects its data under controlled condition in the present.
Examples:
1. To identify factors characterizing person having either high or low accident rates, using data in insurance company records, or
2. To look for patterns of behavior and achievement associated with age differences at the time of school entrance using descriptive data on behavior and achievement test scores in the cumulative pupil records of children currently in the sixth grade.
Principal characteristics of this research:
This research is ex post facto in nature, which means the data are collected after all events of interest have occurred. The investigator then takes one or more effects (dependent variables) and examines the data by going back through time, seeking out causes, relationship, and their meanings.
Steps:
- Define the problem
- Survey the literature.
- State the hypotheses
- List the assumption upon which the hypothesis and procedures will be based.
- Design the approach:
- Validate the data – gathering techniques
- Describe, analyze, and interpret the findings in clear, precise terms.
True experimental Research
The purpose of this research is to investigate possible cause and effect relationship by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the result to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment.
Characteristics of experimental designs:
Requires rigorous management of experimental variables and conditions either by direct control/manipulation or through randomization.
Typically uses a control group as a baseline against which to compare the groups receiving the experimental treatment.
Internal validity is the sine qua non of research design and the first objective of experimental methodology. It asks the question: did the experimental manipulation in this particular study really make a difference?
External validity is the second objective of experimental methodology. It asks the question: How representative are the findings can the results be generalized to similar circumstances and subjects?
Seven steps in experimental research:
survey the literature relating t the problem
identify and define the problem
formulate a problem hypothesis, deducing the consequences and defining basic terms and variables.
construct an experimental plan:
(1) identify all non experimental variables that might contaminate the experiment, and determine how to control them.
(2) Select a research design
(3) Select a sample of subject to represent a given population, assign subjects to groups, and assign experimental treatments to groups
(4) Select or construct and validate instruments to measure the out come of the experiment.
(5) Outline procedures for collecting the data and possibly conduct a pilot or “trial run” test to perfect the instrument or design.
(6) State the statistical or null hypothesis.
Conduct the experiments.
Reduce the raw data in a manner that will produce the best appraisal of the effect which is presumed to exist.
Apply an appropriate test of significance to determine the confidence one can place on the results of the study.
Quasi experimental Research
The purpose of this research is to approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researcher must clearly understand what compromise exist in the internal and external validity of his design and proceed within these limitations.
Characteristics of this research, Quasi experimental research typically involves applied setting where it is not possible to control all the relevant variables but only some of them. The researcher gets as close to the true experimental rigor as condition allow, carefully qualifying the importance exception and limitations. Step in doing quasi experimental the same with true experimental research, carefully recognizing each limitation to the internal and external validity of the design.
Quasi experimental designs are practical compromises between true experimentation and the nature of human language behaviour which we wish to investigate.
By using Quasi experimental design, we control as many variables as we can and also limit the kinds of interpretations we make about cause- effect relationship and hedge the power of our generalization statements. Time series design allows us to do this.
T1 T2 T3 X T4 T5 T6
For example, suppose that we have developed a set of programmed materials to teach English tenses for the class of STKIP students. We haven’t been able to find similar groups to serve as control and experimental groups. We have only STKIP students who learn English. What we can carry out as follow:
a. We start administering tests on articles at the end of each week for the first three weeks of the class. By week for, you can see the improvement that your students have made in article usage.
b. Then we give them the programmed materials to work through.
c. Following this we start giving posttests on articles at the end of each week following the treatment.
d. A comparison of the curves for the first three weeks with those after the treatment will give you an idea whether your innovative materials worked or not. Your result of the research will come up with any of the following possibilities:
1
2
31
2
3
The picture above explains us if we obtained a line similar to line 1 it would show that there was no effect from our special treatment. The students continued the same developmental pattern that we saw during the first three weeks of the study. If the result were like those in line 2, it would indicate that our materials had a negative effect. Since after the treatment their scores declined consistently. Line 3 is the line we would hope to get, since it shows that our treatment was effective
Another version of the time series design is the equivalent time-sample design. It works like this: the treatment is introduced and re introduced between every other pretest and posttest. Then after the second pretest, an alternative treatment is introduced and that is followed by posttest. This procedure is followed for two or three times and the results following the experimental treatment are compared with the alternative treatment scores.
T1XT2 ---T3 0 T4 …T5 X T6 ….T7 0 T8, etc.
Ex Post facto designs
When researchers control the threats to internal and external validity, they are trying to find a direct relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In other words, they select the population, sample, treatment, and variables in order to find a cause and effect relationship between the variable.
Ex post facto designs are often used when the researcher does not have control over the selection and manipulation of the independent variable. This is why researchers look at the type of relationship between the two variables rather than at a cause and effect relationship.
Suppose we wanted to know about the performances of two groups of students (say one group from Banten and another one is out of Banten) on an entrance exam given to students of STKIP SB. Any relationship between the scores of the groups would not be related to any instructional program we had given them before test. That is why the designs are called ex post facto. The researcher has no control over what has already happened to the Ss. The treatment has been given prior to the research project.
Correllational designs are the most commonly used subset of ex post facto design. In correlational design a group of Ss may give us data on two different take the TOEFL. Many universities also have their own entrance exam which they administer to students. We can then look at the relationship of Ss’ scores on one test to their scores on the other. Or for example students have two test TOEFL and GRE (Graduate Record Exam) then the score for each S on one test can be compared with the score on the other, allowing us to see whether those students whose score high on one test also score high on the other.
The schematic representation of this design would be:
T1 T2
Another ex post facto design is called criterion group design. In this design two groups of Ss are compared on one measure. For example measure the reading speed of Indonesian and Malaysian students, assuming we want to see how related or different they might be. The design would look like this:
G1 T1
G2 T2
4. Validity and reliability
A good research has valid and reliable measurement. Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. On the other hand, reliability is the extent to which a measuring device is consistent in measuring whatever it measures.
Content validity
Content validity refers to the degree to which a test sample the content area which is to be measured. Ghiselle (1964) pointed out this is the type of validity educators are most concerned with.
Content validity is essentially and necessity based on judgment. The test makers may ask a number of experts to examine the items systematically and indicate whether or not they represent sufficiently well the theoretical universe from which they were drawn. It means that all major aspect of the content area must be adequately covered by the test items, and they must be in the correct proportions. All the major objectives of instruction must be included as well as the subject matter.
Predictive validity
Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a test can predict the future performance of individuals. A test has predictive validity when it can effectively indicate how a person will do on a later task.
Predictive validity is established empirically by correlating the test scores with subsequent measures on a criterion. The correlation coefficient become validity coefficient.
Construct validity
Construct validity refers to the extent to which a test reflect construct presumed to underlie the test performance and also the extent to which it is based on theories regarding these construct.
Construct validation utilizes both a logical and an empirical approach. In the construct validation of a test, one usually makes a number of inferences from theory and experiences regarding the trait to be tested, then attempts to find experimentally how well the test corresponds with these inferences.
Reliability
There are four commonly used methods for estimating the reliability of a test. Three of them: test – retest, equivalent forms, and split –half are based on correlational procedures; the other Kuder Richardson formula 21, is based on the proportion of subjects who get the items right or wrong.
Test – retest reliability is an obvious way to estimate the reliability of a test by administering it to the same group on two occasion and correlated the paired scores. The coefficient of correlation (Pearson r) between the scores of the subjects, obtained on the two administration of the test will give us an indication of its reliability.
The equivalent forms technique of estimating, Which is also referred to as the alternate or parallel form technique, is used when it is probable that subjects will recall a their responses to the test items. It correlates the results of equivalent forms of the test administered to the same individuals. If the two forms are administered at essentially the same time, the resulting reliability coefficient is called the coefficient of equivalence.
Split half reliability. It is possible to get a measure of reliability from a single administration of one form of a test by using split half procedures. The test is administered to a group of subjects, and later the items are divided into two comparable halves and a coefficient of correlation calculated between these two scores
Kuder Richardson Reliability. This method is by far the least time consuming of all the reliability estimation procedures. It involves only one administration of a test and employs only easily available information. The formula as follow:
r11 = Ksx2 – X (K-X)
sx2 (K-1)
r11= the reliability of the whole test
K = the number of item in the test
sx2= the variance of the scores
X = the mean of the scores
In interpreting of reliability coefficient, most test makers and researchers are satisfied if they obtain reliability coefficient of 0.90 and above but dissatisfied if they got coefficients below 0.70.
5. Report
The last step in doing a research is writing a research report. Dugdale (1967) gives the following format in writing a thesis report.
I. Preliminary pages
A. Title page
B. Acceptance page
C. Acknowledgement page
D. Table of content
E. List of tables
F. List of figures
II. Text
A. Introduction
1. Statement of the problem and justification for the study
2. Statement of the objectives
3. Definition of the term used (if necessary)
4. Review of the research relating to the topic
5. A brief account of the sources of the data and the methods and procedures used
B. Body of the report
1. detailed account of the sources of data and the methods and procedures used
2. presentation and analysis of the data
3. interpretation of the findings
A. Summary and conclusion
1. summary of the study
2. general conclusions drawn from the findings
3. recommendations
II. Supplementary pages
A. Bibliography
B. Appendix
C. Index
D. Vita (if required)
6. Conclusion
A quantitative research is different from a qualitative one. In doing this research we propose the research design and the method based on the purpose of the study and the problem of the research.
To make a good result in a quantitative research, the instrument should be valid and reliable. It means that the instrument measures what should be measured and has stability. It has appropriateness of the statistical treatment and data processing procedures.
Finally, the conclusion of the research should precise and accurate statement of the problem, the methodology followed, and the findings without the introduction of new or irrelevant information.
Kamis, 24 April 2008
Tazkia
namaku tazkia. aku kelas 1 SD islam tirtayasa. Nama ayahku yudi dan ibu ku irma. Mereka sangat sayang padaku
ajuan judul Maret
NO
NIM
NAMA
JUDUL
1
040093
Ita Miftahussaidah Rivai
Analysis of students' critical thinkikg towards students' speaking ability at second grade of SMPN 1 Cipocok Jaya
2
040253
Dewi Kholilah
the effect of Team Teaching in learning Reading Comprehension
3
040081
Nur Ida Apriani
The correlation of Students' ability in reading comprehension and writing Exposition Text at Eight Grade of SMPN 1 Pandeglang
4
040098
Siti Aminah Alqodri
The Study of Implementing Bilingual Classroom to Improve students' ability in speaking English at Junior High School Number at SMPN 1 Serang
5
040145
Yuan Indrayani
the analysis of Students' reading interest through extensive reading
6
041121
Lia Yuliyani N. Dewi
Teaching Reading through Snowball Throwing
7
040797
Indri Wulansari
Increasing Students' Ability in Writing Narrative Text Through Watching a Film (the Legend of Sangkuriang)
8
040851
Sri Mulyani
The Correlation between Students' Creative Thinking and Their Descriptive Writing Ability (A Correlation Study of Eight Grade Studnts at SMPN 1 Ciruas)
9
040106
Neneng Sri Setyawati
The Analysis of Students' Difficulties in Reading Comprehension in SMPN 3 Pandeglang Banten
10
040641
Dian Nurdianti
The Analysist of Students' Tenses Ability in Reading Narrative texts at the Eight Grade of SMP I Pandeglang
11
040260
Ifat fatimah
The Effectiveness of Educational Debate technique toward Students' Critical Thinking Improvement (A case study in English Debating Club (EDC) Untirta)
12
040036
Tati Mayasari
Teaching English in the Disruptive Class of the First Grade of SMPN 4 Serang (A case study)
13
040014
Ila Nur Azizah
" The Influence of touristm towards the students' motivation in learning speaking skill.
14
040206
Yayah Rodiah
The Correlation of Motivation And Achivement in Learning English Between and Social Program in SMAN 1 Cikupa.
15
040361
Yeni Rahmiani
"The Influence of using Audio Visual Comunication to Improve Students' Listening Comprehension at second Semester of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa"
16
040205
Eka Fidyanti Haryana
A Case Study of Code Switching and Code Mixing of MTV VJ's Dialog in MTV Global Room TV Program
17
040325
Wulan Nova Maulidini
The Influence of "English Day" Toward Student's Speaking Ability at Second Grade Senior High Scool in Gintung
18
040032
Hesty Sevtianasari
The Analysis of Students' Writing Advertisement at the Second Grade Of SMPN 4 Serang
19
040887
Wida Rosida
The analysis of Students' Reading Comprehension based on Generic Structure of Hortatory Exposition Text on Reading Letter in Newspaper
20
030339
Andini
The Influence of Teaching Listening by Native Speaker toward Students Motivation in Speaking Mastery of the Second Years at SMPN 1 Pandeglang
21
030323
Ayanah
Teaching and Improving Students Ability in Using Coordinate and Correlative Conjuncional in English Sentences at SMAN 1 Kresek
22
040431
Buang Mintarsih
An Analysis of Students' Learning Style in Reading to Increase Students Achievement at Second Grade Senior High School
23
040472
Syifa Amalia Fauziah
Increasing Student's Vocabulary Through Children Reading Short Story at Second Year of SMPN 2 Balaraja
24
040609
Putri Cahyani Rahman
The Influence of Communicative Language Teaching toward the Second Year Student's Understanding on Transactional and ainterpersonal Text at SMPN 1 Karang Tanjung
25
030401
Rohayati
Comparasion of Male and Female Students' Motivation in Speaking English in the C;assroom and its Influences to Their Achievement of the Second Year at SMPN 1 Pandeglang
26
030396
MUTIARA HADI
The Analysis on Student's Strategies in English Spelling At the First Gade in SMPN 1 Banjar
27
040750
Eka Piani P
The Influence of Extensive Reading toward Students' Reading Interest at Eleven Grade Students of SMUN 1 Pandeglang
28
040040
Viola Wienda Trisnantia
Improving Students' Public Speaking Through Role Play as Host and Guest of TV/ Radio Programme on the Second Grade of SMPN 1 serang
29
040073
Siti Jamilah
The Effect of cooperative Learning Toward Students' Achievement in Writing Skill Using STAD " Students Teams Achievement Division" in The Classroom ( A Case Study in Junior High School First Year at SMPN 2 Gunung Sindur- Bogor)
30
030422
Susi Andiyani
Improving students' Vocabulary Mastery Through Crossword puzzle of the Second Year at SMAN 1 Kresek.
31
040068
Ratih Kusmayanti
The Influence of Short Dialogue in Picture toward Students' Reading Ability at SDN 7 Serang
32
040294
Lia Nurlianingsih
Encouraging Students' Participation in Speaking Classroom Activity Using Board Game at Second Years in SMAN I malingping
33
010801
Linda Fajar Wati
The Influence of Using Short Story Toward English Students Reading Ability
34
040614
Yetti Silviawati
Comparative Study ofTeaching Vocabulary Using Translation Method and Communicative in "Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan" Study Case at SMPN 4 Serang
35
041251
Arrum Fathia sari
Improving Students' Speaking Ability Through Listening English Song at Second Years of SMAN 1 Cipocok Jaya Serang
36
030417
Nova Priyanti
The Study of Learners Behaviors (Motivation, Attitude and Personality) toward Language Learning (A Study case of SMK PGRI 2 Serang)
37
041142
Annisa Rachmawati
An Analysis of Students' Interest in Reading English Tex at Eight Grade Students of SMPN 3 Cilegon
38
041271
Feryna
The Correlation Between Students' Speed Reading And Students' Text Understanding at the Second Years Students of SMUN 2 KS
39
0401302
Ledy Lutfiani J.
Watching English Movie and Its Influences on Students' Pronunciation rad at Third Grade of SMPN I Baros
40
040985
Rumintang Juliyanti
An Analysis of Students' Difficulties In Speaking English Conversation
41
040719
Siska Mika Sumandari
An Analysis of Teaching Speaking English Through Communicative Learning Method
42
041067
Nopianti Awaliyah
The Infuence of English Story towardStudents' Achievement in Reading Comprehension at Secondary Grade in SMPN 3 Tigaraksa
43
040477
Suryati
An Analysis of the Student's Difficulties in Reading Comprehension at Second Grade in SMPN 8 Serang
44
040608
Ajat Sudrajat
The Students Diffculties in Translating English Newpaper at 2 nd Grade in SMAN 1 Pontang
45
040652
Yudhie Indra Gunawan
An Analysis of Students' Translation on Argumentative text at MAN 2 Serang
46
040912
Junun Prayogi
The Influence of English Club toward Students Speaking Ability
47
040732
Taufiqurrohman
Analysis Student's Speaking on English day Program at 9th Grade Students of MTs Al-Mubaroq Serang
48
040385
Atik Kusmiati
The Influence of Teacing Speaking trought Taking - Tickets Method to the Students' Speaking Ability (A case study at the Third Grade of SMPIT al Fatih I Citra Raya Tangerang)
49
040611
Dewi Quraisyin
The Effects of using Cooperative Learning on Reading Comprehension
50
040069
Nenih Hamdiah
The Use of Bilingual Comic to Increase Vocabulary Mastery in the Eight Grade Students at SMPN 1 Rangkasbitung
51
040030
Rani Dwi Sukmayanti
The Analysis of students' mother tongue interference toward their English pronunciation
52
010739
Hery Wijaya
The Improving of Speaking Ability toward the Internet and Watching Television Media at Second Grade in SMK 1 Serang
53
040867
Ichwan Martin G
Developing the Student'sVocabulary Through Neighboringhood technique at Eleven Grdes in SMK pasundan
54
040575
Siti Laila Perwati
Increasing Students' Reading Comprehension through short story at Seventh Grade SMPN 3 Pandeglang
55
040076
Sumiyati
Improving Students' Speaking Ability through Mulitimedia Program in Madrasah Aliyah Al- Khiriyah Pabuaran Cilegon
56
010800
Tihamah
The Influence of English Short Stories to The Students Reading Comprehension at the Second Year of SMPN 2 Cilegon
57
040451
Suci Fibriani Rahayu
The Effectiveness of Classroom anagement by Using Hallway Conference's Technique
58
030361
Haniyati
The Comparative Study between the Teaching english Through Songs and Pictures at the Second Grade of MI Nurul Falah Tangerang
59
040351
Rani Anjar Pratiwi
Incresing Student's Motivation in Writing an English Poetry Through Song Lyrics For The First Grade of SMUN YUPPENTEK 2 Tangerang
60
040674
Fitriani Pratiwi
The Influence of Teacher's Professionalism toward Students' Achievement in English at SMAN 1 Cipocok Jaya
61
010713
Siti Rodiyah
Teaching Writing Based on Communicative Approach at SMPN Kasemen
62
040774
Ratu Yusti Sami'ati
An Anlysis of Students' Coherence on their translation English Text at Second Grade of SMPN 4 Serang
63
040236
Mety Hadiati
The Analysis of Collaborative Story Wrting Technique in Improving Student's Writing Ability
65
Solis Setiyani
Teaching reading using authentic and simplified text at international class of SMAN I Serang
66
40072
Ratu Ita Maryati Afia
The application of Communicative approach in teaching reading at eight class of SMPN 1 Kragilan
NIM
NAMA
JUDUL
1
040093
Ita Miftahussaidah Rivai
Analysis of students' critical thinkikg towards students' speaking ability at second grade of SMPN 1 Cipocok Jaya
2
040253
Dewi Kholilah
the effect of Team Teaching in learning Reading Comprehension
3
040081
Nur Ida Apriani
The correlation of Students' ability in reading comprehension and writing Exposition Text at Eight Grade of SMPN 1 Pandeglang
4
040098
Siti Aminah Alqodri
The Study of Implementing Bilingual Classroom to Improve students' ability in speaking English at Junior High School Number at SMPN 1 Serang
5
040145
Yuan Indrayani
the analysis of Students' reading interest through extensive reading
6
041121
Lia Yuliyani N. Dewi
Teaching Reading through Snowball Throwing
7
040797
Indri Wulansari
Increasing Students' Ability in Writing Narrative Text Through Watching a Film (the Legend of Sangkuriang)
8
040851
Sri Mulyani
The Correlation between Students' Creative Thinking and Their Descriptive Writing Ability (A Correlation Study of Eight Grade Studnts at SMPN 1 Ciruas)
9
040106
Neneng Sri Setyawati
The Analysis of Students' Difficulties in Reading Comprehension in SMPN 3 Pandeglang Banten
10
040641
Dian Nurdianti
The Analysist of Students' Tenses Ability in Reading Narrative texts at the Eight Grade of SMP I Pandeglang
11
040260
Ifat fatimah
The Effectiveness of Educational Debate technique toward Students' Critical Thinking Improvement (A case study in English Debating Club (EDC) Untirta)
12
040036
Tati Mayasari
Teaching English in the Disruptive Class of the First Grade of SMPN 4 Serang (A case study)
13
040014
Ila Nur Azizah
" The Influence of touristm towards the students' motivation in learning speaking skill.
14
040206
Yayah Rodiah
The Correlation of Motivation And Achivement in Learning English Between and Social Program in SMAN 1 Cikupa.
15
040361
Yeni Rahmiani
"The Influence of using Audio Visual Comunication to Improve Students' Listening Comprehension at second Semester of Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa"
16
040205
Eka Fidyanti Haryana
A Case Study of Code Switching and Code Mixing of MTV VJ's Dialog in MTV Global Room TV Program
17
040325
Wulan Nova Maulidini
The Influence of "English Day" Toward Student's Speaking Ability at Second Grade Senior High Scool in Gintung
18
040032
Hesty Sevtianasari
The Analysis of Students' Writing Advertisement at the Second Grade Of SMPN 4 Serang
19
040887
Wida Rosida
The analysis of Students' Reading Comprehension based on Generic Structure of Hortatory Exposition Text on Reading Letter in Newspaper
20
030339
Andini
The Influence of Teaching Listening by Native Speaker toward Students Motivation in Speaking Mastery of the Second Years at SMPN 1 Pandeglang
21
030323
Ayanah
Teaching and Improving Students Ability in Using Coordinate and Correlative Conjuncional in English Sentences at SMAN 1 Kresek
22
040431
Buang Mintarsih
An Analysis of Students' Learning Style in Reading to Increase Students Achievement at Second Grade Senior High School
23
040472
Syifa Amalia Fauziah
Increasing Student's Vocabulary Through Children Reading Short Story at Second Year of SMPN 2 Balaraja
24
040609
Putri Cahyani Rahman
The Influence of Communicative Language Teaching toward the Second Year Student's Understanding on Transactional and ainterpersonal Text at SMPN 1 Karang Tanjung
25
030401
Rohayati
Comparasion of Male and Female Students' Motivation in Speaking English in the C;assroom and its Influences to Their Achievement of the Second Year at SMPN 1 Pandeglang
26
030396
MUTIARA HADI
The Analysis on Student's Strategies in English Spelling At the First Gade in SMPN 1 Banjar
27
040750
Eka Piani P
The Influence of Extensive Reading toward Students' Reading Interest at Eleven Grade Students of SMUN 1 Pandeglang
28
040040
Viola Wienda Trisnantia
Improving Students' Public Speaking Through Role Play as Host and Guest of TV/ Radio Programme on the Second Grade of SMPN 1 serang
29
040073
Siti Jamilah
The Effect of cooperative Learning Toward Students' Achievement in Writing Skill Using STAD " Students Teams Achievement Division" in The Classroom ( A Case Study in Junior High School First Year at SMPN 2 Gunung Sindur- Bogor)
30
030422
Susi Andiyani
Improving students' Vocabulary Mastery Through Crossword puzzle of the Second Year at SMAN 1 Kresek.
31
040068
Ratih Kusmayanti
The Influence of Short Dialogue in Picture toward Students' Reading Ability at SDN 7 Serang
32
040294
Lia Nurlianingsih
Encouraging Students' Participation in Speaking Classroom Activity Using Board Game at Second Years in SMAN I malingping
33
010801
Linda Fajar Wati
The Influence of Using Short Story Toward English Students Reading Ability
34
040614
Yetti Silviawati
Comparative Study ofTeaching Vocabulary Using Translation Method and Communicative in "Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan" Study Case at SMPN 4 Serang
35
041251
Arrum Fathia sari
Improving Students' Speaking Ability Through Listening English Song at Second Years of SMAN 1 Cipocok Jaya Serang
36
030417
Nova Priyanti
The Study of Learners Behaviors (Motivation, Attitude and Personality) toward Language Learning (A Study case of SMK PGRI 2 Serang)
37
041142
Annisa Rachmawati
An Analysis of Students' Interest in Reading English Tex at Eight Grade Students of SMPN 3 Cilegon
38
041271
Feryna
The Correlation Between Students' Speed Reading And Students' Text Understanding at the Second Years Students of SMUN 2 KS
39
0401302
Ledy Lutfiani J.
Watching English Movie and Its Influences on Students' Pronunciation rad at Third Grade of SMPN I Baros
40
040985
Rumintang Juliyanti
An Analysis of Students' Difficulties In Speaking English Conversation
41
040719
Siska Mika Sumandari
An Analysis of Teaching Speaking English Through Communicative Learning Method
42
041067
Nopianti Awaliyah
The Infuence of English Story towardStudents' Achievement in Reading Comprehension at Secondary Grade in SMPN 3 Tigaraksa
43
040477
Suryati
An Analysis of the Student's Difficulties in Reading Comprehension at Second Grade in SMPN 8 Serang
44
040608
Ajat Sudrajat
The Students Diffculties in Translating English Newpaper at 2 nd Grade in SMAN 1 Pontang
45
040652
Yudhie Indra Gunawan
An Analysis of Students' Translation on Argumentative text at MAN 2 Serang
46
040912
Junun Prayogi
The Influence of English Club toward Students Speaking Ability
47
040732
Taufiqurrohman
Analysis Student's Speaking on English day Program at 9th Grade Students of MTs Al-Mubaroq Serang
48
040385
Atik Kusmiati
The Influence of Teacing Speaking trought Taking - Tickets Method to the Students' Speaking Ability (A case study at the Third Grade of SMPIT al Fatih I Citra Raya Tangerang)
49
040611
Dewi Quraisyin
The Effects of using Cooperative Learning on Reading Comprehension
50
040069
Nenih Hamdiah
The Use of Bilingual Comic to Increase Vocabulary Mastery in the Eight Grade Students at SMPN 1 Rangkasbitung
51
040030
Rani Dwi Sukmayanti
The Analysis of students' mother tongue interference toward their English pronunciation
52
010739
Hery Wijaya
The Improving of Speaking Ability toward the Internet and Watching Television Media at Second Grade in SMK 1 Serang
53
040867
Ichwan Martin G
Developing the Student'sVocabulary Through Neighboringhood technique at Eleven Grdes in SMK pasundan
54
040575
Siti Laila Perwati
Increasing Students' Reading Comprehension through short story at Seventh Grade SMPN 3 Pandeglang
55
040076
Sumiyati
Improving Students' Speaking Ability through Mulitimedia Program in Madrasah Aliyah Al- Khiriyah Pabuaran Cilegon
56
010800
Tihamah
The Influence of English Short Stories to The Students Reading Comprehension at the Second Year of SMPN 2 Cilegon
57
040451
Suci Fibriani Rahayu
The Effectiveness of Classroom anagement by Using Hallway Conference's Technique
58
030361
Haniyati
The Comparative Study between the Teaching english Through Songs and Pictures at the Second Grade of MI Nurul Falah Tangerang
59
040351
Rani Anjar Pratiwi
Incresing Student's Motivation in Writing an English Poetry Through Song Lyrics For The First Grade of SMUN YUPPENTEK 2 Tangerang
60
040674
Fitriani Pratiwi
The Influence of Teacher's Professionalism toward Students' Achievement in English at SMAN 1 Cipocok Jaya
61
010713
Siti Rodiyah
Teaching Writing Based on Communicative Approach at SMPN Kasemen
62
040774
Ratu Yusti Sami'ati
An Anlysis of Students' Coherence on their translation English Text at Second Grade of SMPN 4 Serang
63
040236
Mety Hadiati
The Analysis of Collaborative Story Wrting Technique in Improving Student's Writing Ability
65
Solis Setiyani
Teaching reading using authentic and simplified text at international class of SMAN I Serang
66
40072
Ratu Ita Maryati Afia
The application of Communicative approach in teaching reading at eight class of SMPN 1 Kragilan
kualitatif
Bab 1
Paradigma ilmu-ilmu sosial
Paradigma:
Pernyataan yang menerangkan bagaimana dunia dan kehidupan dipersepsikan
Teori
Suatu set pernyataan yang sistematis dan saling berkaitan yang dikembangkan melalui penelitian untuk menjelaskan gejala-gejala khusus
Konsep
Bagian dari teori yang menjelaskan tentang nama atau label untuk mengklasifikasi atau memberi pengertian tentang objek, pengalaman, peristiwa atu hubungan-hubungan
Metodologi
Model yang mencakup prinsip-prinsip teoretis maupun kerangka pandang yang menjadi pedoman mengenai bagaimana riset akan dilaksanakan dalam konteks pradigma tertentu
Metode
Cara yang dipergunakan peneliti untuk mengumpulkan bukti-bukti empiris
Perspektif teoretis ilmu-ilmu sosial
Positivitik
Interpretif
Kritikal
Realitas
Objektif, di luar individu
Subjektif
Di antara subjektivitas dan objektivitas
Dipersepsikan melalui indera
Diciptakan dan diinterpretasikan
Diciptakan, bukan ditemukan
Dipersepsikan seragam
Dipersepsikan secara unik
Merupakan hal yang kompleks
Diatur oleh hukum-hukum universal
Ditampilkan dalam simbol-simbol yang deskriptif
Berada dalam ketegangan/
Kontradiksi
Manusia
Individu rasional
Pencipta dunia
Dinamis
Mengikuti hukum diluar dirinya
Memberikan arti pada dunia
Pencipta nasib
Tidak memiliki kebebasan
Tidak dibatasi oleh hukum di luar dirinya
Diarahkan secara tidak tepat
Menciptakan rangkaian makna
Dihalangi dari realisasi potensinya secara penuh
Ilmu
Didasari hukum dan proseduryang ketat
Didasari pengetahuan sehari hari
Diantara positivisme dan interpretif
Deduktif
Induktif
Membebaskan dan memberdayakan
Nomotetis
Hukum universal
Idiografis
Spesifik
Didasarkan pada pemberdayaan
Diperoleh dari penginderaan
Diperoleh dari interpretasi dan pemahaman
Menjelaskan dinamika-dinamika sistem yang tercipta
Bebas nilai
Tidak bebas nilai
Tidak bebas nilai
Tujuan
Peneli
Tian
Menjelaskan fakta, penyebab dan efek
Menginterpretasi dunia
Mengungkap yg di balik permukaan
Meramalkan
Memahami kehidupan sosial
Mengungkap mitos dan ilusi
Menekankan fakta, objektif, di luar
Menekankan makna
Membuka keyakinan yang keliru, membebaskan memberdayakan
Bab 2
Penelitian kualitatif
Definisi
Penelitian kualitatif tidak mungkin didefinisikan secara tunggal dan pasti
Penelitian kualitatif adalah “interpretative study” dari suatu masalah yang spesifik berdasarkan pandangan peneliti
Jadi penelitian kualitatif adalah
A. Suatu usaha untuk menangkap esensi dari gejala
B. Suatu eksplorasi, elaborasi dan sistemisasi dari gejala yang ada
C. suatu penjelasan dari makna suatu masalah
Delapan pertanyaan tentang pendekatan kualitatif
1. Dapatkah pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif dipakai bersama?
2. Apakah penelitian kualitatif itu ilmiah?
3. Apa bedanya penelitian kualitatif dengan apa yang dilakukan oleh guru, wartawan, dan artis?
4. Apakah penemuan kualitatif dapat digeneralisasi?
5. Bagaimana pengaruh opini, prasangka, dan bias-bias lainnya dari peneliti terhadap data?
6. Bukankah kehadiran peneliti dapat mempengaruhi perilaku orang-orang yang diteliti? (pasti mempengaruhi)
7. Dapatkah dua orang peneliti yang meneliti hal yang sama menghasilkan hal yang sama? (belum tentu)
8. Apa perbedaan antara pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif?
Karakteristik penelitian
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
1.
Situasi
Alamiah – berorientasi pada penemuan dari situasi apa adanya
Asumsi: realitas, kondisi sosial itu kompleks, bervariasi dan tidak statis
1.
Situasi
Dimanipulasi, di ubah
Pengaruh-pengaruh eksternal dikendalikan
Asumsi:
Kondisi konstan
2.
Perspektif:
Holistik
Gejala adalah keseluruhan yang kompleks
Mencoba memahami situasi secara mendalam
Tidak membatasi penelitian ke dalam variabel-variabel
Dinamis/ berkembang
Jadi perubahan adalah wajar
2.
Perspektif:
Reduktif
Gejala disederhanakan, faktor-faktor penting diabaikan, dilakukan kuantifikasi
3.
Orientasi:
Pada kasus unik dengan bahasan mendalam
3.
Orientasi:
pada keseragaman -- generalisasi
4.
Istilah yang berkaitan:
Ethnography
Field work
Soft data
Symbolic interaction
Inner perspective
Naturalistic
Ethnomethodological
Descriptive
Participantobservation
Phenomenological
Documentary
Life history
Case study
Ecological
4.
Istilah yang berkaitan:
Experimental
Hard data
Outer perspective
Empirical
Positivist
Social facts
Statistical
5.
Teori yang berkaitan
Symbolic interaction
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenology
Culture
Idealism
5
Teori yang berkaitan
Structural- functionalism
Realism, positivism
Behaviouralism
Logical empiricism
System theory
6.
Tujuan:
Develop sensitizing concepts
Describe multiple realities
Grounded theory
Develop understanding
6.
Tujuan
Theory testing
Establish the facts
Statistical descrption
Show relationships between variables
Prediction
7.
Disain penelitian fleksibel, berkembang dan umum
Dinyatakan sekilas bagaimana proses penelitian akan berlangsung
7.
Disain penelitian sudah ditentukan sejak awal, terstruktur, formal, spesifik, direncanakan pelaksanaannya secara terinci
8.
Proposal:
Singkat
Spekulatif
Menyarankan bidang-bidang penelitian yang mungkin relevan
Bisa ditulis setelah pengambilan data
Tidak berdasarkan pada pembahasan literatur secara mendalam
Pendekatan hanya dinyatakan secara umum
8.
Proposal:
Panjang
Terinci dan fokusnya spesifik
Terinci dan prosedurnya spesifik
Dibuat dengan membahas sejumlah literatur penting
Ditulis sebelum pengumpulan data
Hipotesa dinyatakaan secara tegas
9.
Data:
Deskriptif
Dokumen pribadi
Catatan dari lapangan
Foto
Pendapat orang itu sendiri
Dokumen formal atau peninggalan2
9.
Data:
Kuantitatif
Coding yang dapat dihitung
Perhitungan, pengukuran
Variable yang dioperasionalisasikan
Perhitungan statistik
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
10.
Metode:
Observasi dengan atau tanpa alat
Meninjau berbagai dokumen, karya atau peninggalan
Analisis catatan pribadi
Observasi partisipatif
Wawancara terbuka
Wawancara dengan focus-group
Studi kasus
Studi riwayat hidup
Analisis foto
10.
Metode:
Eksperimen
Survey
Wawancara terstruktur
Quasi experiments
Observasi terstruktur
Penyusunan data
11.
Hubungan dengan subjek:
Personal untuk memahami realitas
Empati
Menekankan kepercayaan
Sejajar
Kontak intensif
Subjek sebagai teman
11.
Hubungan dengan subjek:
Peneliti menjauh dari subyek penelitian agar objektif
Hanya pada situasi itu
Hubungan jangka pendek dan berjarak
Formal
12.
Alat:
Alat-alat tulis
Tape recorder
Video recorder
Peneliti adalah instrumen kunci
12.
Alat:
Inventories
Kuesioner
Indeks
Computer
Timbangan
Skor tes
Peneliti bisa gabungan dari beberapa orang dengan perannya masing-masing
13.
Analisis:
Induktif
Dari masalah yang luas menjadi sempit
Mencoba memahami situasi secara mendalam
Tidak membatasi penelitian ke dalam variabel-variabel
Dilakukan terus menerus
Model, tema, konsep
Perbandingan secara konstan
14.
Analisis:
Deduktif
Dari masalah yang sempit menjadi luas
Variabel-variabel-
Nya dipilih oleh peneliti berdasarkan teori tertentu
Dilakukan untuk menyimpulkan data yang terkumpul
Perhitungan statistik
14.
Masalah yang dihadapi
Memakan waktu lama
Sulit untuk mereduksi data
Reliabilitas
Prosedur tidak terstandardisasi
Sulit untuk meneliti populasi yang besar
14.
Masalah yang dihadapi
Mengontrol variabel-variabel lain
Validitas
Sampel
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
1.
Sedikit—mendalam
1.
Banyak-- generalisasi
2.
tidak ditentukan sejak awal berapa jumlahnya
Tergantung pada “saturation point”
2.
Ditentukan dengan pasti jumlahnya
Variabel luar dikontrol
3.
Ditentukan secara purposive (kriteria tertentu) pada konteks tertentu
3.
Dipilih secara acak
4.
Prinsip pengambilan sample ditentukan oleh tujuan penelitian:
A.Sampel ekstrim
B.Sampel yang mewakili penghayatan terhadap fenomena secara intensif
C.Sampel dengan variasi maksimum
D. Sample homogen
E. Sampel tipikal – mewakili kelompok normal dari sekelompok orang tertentu
F. Purposif terstratifikasi
G. Sampel kritikal: ada keterbatasan waktu dan dana
H. Sampel bole salju
I. Sampel berdasarkan teori
4.
Terdapat control groups
Bab 3
Berbagai tipe penelitian kualitatif
Etnografi
Mendeskripsikan suatu budaya dan memahami cara-cara hidup dari sudut pandang masyarakatnya.
Karakteristik
1. Tingkah laku dipahami berdasarkan shared culture meanings
2. Kelompok yang diteliti pada setting alamiah (observasi partisipasi)
3. Tujuan: pemahaman keseluruhan (holistik kontekstual)
4. Refleksifitas: peneliti adalah bagian dari dunia yang diteliti dan dipengaruhi oleh hal tersebut.
5. Emics (pandangan informan) dan etics (perspektif peneliti) saling terkait.
Proses penelitian
1. Peneliti adalah orang yang belajar tentang budaya/ kelompok yang diteliti (posisinya inferior atau tidak tahu apa-apa)
2. Pengamatan dan hubungan berlangsung jangka panjang untuk memperoleh pengalaman dalam rutinitas kehidupan, kejadian khusus, dilakukan dalam berbagai konteks.
3. Menggunakan pengumpulan data yang beragam untuk memahami kompleksitas sistem yang diteliti
Masalah
1. Rasa percaya: apakah kelompok percaya kepada peneliti
2. Kedekatan vs menjaga jarak dengan fenomena yang diteliti
Grounded theory
Penelitian kualitatif yang menggunakan satu set prosedur sistematik untuk mengembangkan teori mengenai suatu fenomena yang diperoleh secara induktif
Di dalam grounded theory tidak ada teori tertentu maupun perumusan hipotesis. Penelitian dimulai dengan “open mind” dan berakhir dengan perumusan suatu teori yang tepat dan dapat memberi penjelasan terhadap area yang diteliti
Proses pengumpulan data
Pengumpulan - analisa - pengumpulan- analisa - dst - th. Sat.
Data 1 data 1 data 2 data 2
Theoretical sensitivity
Kemampuan peneliti untuk mengenali hal-hal penting dalam data dan memberikan arti terhadap hal-hal tersebut.
Peneliti yang baik tidak cukup hanya mempelajari tentang grounded theory dari buku tetapi harus mempraktekannya
Peneliti harus bersikap terbuka dan fleksibel.
Prosedur coding
1. Open coding: memberi nama dan membuat kategori-kategori tentang fenomena dengan melihat data secara teliti
Contoh:
Memberi nama pada aktivitas/ kualitas/ karakteristik subyek yang diteliti
Membuat kategori berdasarkan
Properti dimensi
Frekuensi sering-jarang
Intensitas tinggi –rendah
Durasi lama sebentar
2. Axial coding: suatu set prosedur yang menyatukan kembali data-data setelah mengalami open coding, dengan cara membuat hubungan antar kategori dengan menggunakan paradigma coding (proses induktif---deduktif)
(a) kondisi penyebab (b) fenomena (c) konteks
(d) intevening conditions (e) strategi tindakan
(f) konsekuansi
3. Selective coding: proses memilih kategori inti secara sistematis menghubungkannya dengan kategori-kategori lain, memvalidasi hubungan-hubungan tersebut dan melengkapi kategori-ketegori yang belum lengkap.
Studi kasus
Tujuan
1. Meneliti satu atau sejumlah kasus secara detil dan mendalam dengan menggunakan metode-metode yang tepat
2. Memahami kasus dalam situasi alamiahnya, mengenali kompelksitas dan konteksnya, memperoleh gambaran menyeluruh (holistik)
studi kasus dilakukan bila:
1. Pertanyaan utama: “how” & “why”
2. Fenomena sulit dikontrol
3. Fokus pada fenomena kontemporer pada konteks ilmiah
Jenis-jenis studi kasus
1. Intrinsic case study: untuk memperoleh pemahaman yang lebih baik mengenai kasus
2. Instrumental case study: meneliti kasus untuk memberi insight pada suatu issue atau untuk meperbaiki teori
3. Collective case study: mempelajari beberapa kasus instrumental untuk memahami lebih jauh mengenai fenomena, populasi, atau kondisi umum
Disain studi kasus
Komponen-komponen:
- Pertanyaan penelitian
- Tujuan penelitian
- Unit analisa
- Menghubungkan data dengan tujuan penelitian
- Kriteria untuk interpretasi data
Pengembangan teori sebagai bagian dari disain
Generalisasi hasil
Kriteria penilaian studi kasus
Validitas internal
Seberapa benarkah temuan dari studi
Validitas eksternal
Sejauh mana hasil penelitian dapat diterapkan pada setting atau kelompok orang yang berbeda,
Reliabilitas
Bagaimana penelitian yang sama dapat diulang pada saat yang berbeda, dengan metode yang sama, partisipan yang sama, dalam konteks yang sama
Objektivitas
Bagaimana kita yakin bahwa temuan penelitian bukan merupakan sesuatu yang diwarnai oleh bias dan prasangka-prasangka
Fleksibilitas disain
Pemilihan kasus tunggal
- Critical case: untuk membuktikan suatu teori
- Extreme/ unique case: biasanya kasus klinis
- Revelatory case: sebelumnya tidak dapat diteliti
pemilihan kasus ganda
- Multiple cases tidak sama dengan multiple respondents, tetapi mengikuti logika replikasi (validitas eksternal)
- Pemilihan kasus-kasus harus dapat:
Meramalkan munculnya hasil yang sama
Memunculkan hasil yang berbeda tetapi sudah diprediksi
- Harus ada kepekaan teoritis yang kaya
(deduktif)
Persiapan pengumpulan data
Peneliti yang baik:
- Mampu mengajukan pertanyaan yang baik
- Pendengar yang baik
- Adaptif dan fleksibel
- Memahami masalah yang diteliti
- Tidak bias oleh pendapat-pendapat yang sudah terbentuk.
perlu ada pelatihan bagi peneliti agar mereka
memahami konsep-konsep dasar, terminologi, dan
isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan penelitian
Penyusunan protokol (untuk reliabilitas)
protokol terdiri dari alat pengumpul data,
prosedur dan aturan-aturan umum dalam
mempergunakan alat tersebut
Protokol harus mencakup:
- Gambaran tentang proyek studi kasus
- Prosedur lapangan
- Pertenyaan penelitian
- Panduan untuk laporan studi kasus
pilot case study
pilot study membantu peneliti untuk
mengembangkan pertanyaan yang relevan juga
untuk klarifikasi konsep.
Pelaksanaan penelitian
Laporkan semua yang terjadi saat penelitian dilakukan
Sumber data
1. Dokumen
2. Catatan arsip
3. Wawancara
4. Observasi langsung
5. Observasi partisipasi
6. Artifak
Prinsip pengumpulan data
1. Menggunakan berbagai sumber data
- triangulasi: penemuan/ kesmpulan menjadi lebih
meyakinkan (untuk validitas konstruk)
- peneliti harus memiliki ketrampilan dalam
menggunakan berbagai sumber data
2. Membuat data base (untuk reliabilitas)
- Catatan
- Dokumen (annotated bibliography)
- Tabulasi
- “narratives” peneliti membuat jawaban dari pertanyaan di protokol
3. Chain of evidence (untuk reliabilitas dan validitas konstruk) agar external observer dapat mengikuti bagaimana proses diperolehnya bukti-bukti, mulai dari masalah penelitian sampai dengan kesimpulan dan sebaliknya
Analisis data
Beberapa cara yang disarankan
1. Melaporkan jumlah data yang terkumpul (lembar transkrip ) dan lamanya waktu yang digunakan untuk melakukan kegiatan pengolahan dari data kasar menjadi transkrip.
2. Menjadikan data-data yang dapat diolah secara statistik
3. Menggunakan berbagai tehnik analisa (matriks, tabulasi frekuensi, dsb)
Strategi umum
1. Merujuk pada proposisi-proposisi teoritis
2. Mengembangkan deskripsi kasus
Cara analisa yang dominan
1. Pattern matching membandingkan beberapa pola yang diperoleh secara empiris dengan pola yang diramalkan
2. Explanation- building: peneliti membuat penjelasan tentang kasus
3. Time-series analysis: peneliti mempertanyaan bagaimana dan mengapa tentang hubungan antara beberapa kejadian dalam jangka waktu tertentu
Penyusunan laporan
1. Identifikasi audience
Bentuk laporan disesuaikan dengan audience
2. Berbagai bentuk penyajian
- Studi kasus tunggal : buku, artikel, jurnal
- Studi kasus ganda: muliple narratives
- Bentuk pertanyaan-jawaban
- Analisa perbandingan kasus
3. Struktur ilustratif
- Linear analitik: bentuk standar
- Perbandingan: membandingkan berbagai deskripsi tentang kasus yang sama
- Kronologis: berdasarkan sejarah kasus
- Pembentukan teori
- Suspence: hasil studi kasus diletakkan pada bagian awal
- Tidak berurutan
Action research
Studi tentang suatu situasi sosial dengan tujuan untuk memperbaiki kualitas dari tindakan yang dilakukan di dalamnya
Prosedur yang didisain untuk menghadapi masalah konkrit yang terdapat di dalam suatu situasi tertentu
Karakteristik
1. Tindakan dan evaluasi berjalan secara terpisah tetapi dilakukan bersamaan, tujuannya untuk mengubah tingkah laku individu secara langsung. Contoh: kekerasan terhadap wanita
2. Participatory/collaborative research: kelompok yang diteliti membuat keputusan tentang bentuk studi dan cara analisa data. Contoh: mengubah wanita untuk mengubah perilaku mereka terhadap suami
3. Menentukan jumlah absolut atau relatif dari orang-orang yang memiliki pengalaman atau kebutuhan tertentu
4. Eavaluation research: mengevaluasi efektivitas berbagai tindakan tyang berbeda dalam memecahkan masalah
5. Demystification: keyakinan bahwa tindakan mengumpulkan pengetahuan juga menciptakan perubahan
Pengumpulan data
Ditujukan untuk memonitor tindakan / usaha perubahan yang dilakukan. Pemilihan berbagai tehnik pengumpulan data disesuaikan dengan jenis informasi yang dibutuhkan
1. Dokumen- dokumen yang berhubungan dengan situasi
2. Menulis catatan harian secara terinci
3. Catatan observasi
4. Kuesioner
5. Wawancara
6. Shadowing: observasi terhadap partisipan dalam jangka waktu tertentu
7. Rekaman video
8. Foto-foto
9. Triangulasi: menggunakan berbagai tehnik untuk mengecek informasi, interpretasi dan keputusan-keputusan
DISAIN RISET KUALITATIF
1. Dimulai dengan pertanyaan tentang manusia dalam kehidupan yang nyata, dalam kurun waktu tertentu
2. Terdapat 3 tahap dalam riset kualitatif: pemanasan, pelaksanaan, dan cooling down
1. Pemanasan
Pada tahap ini peneliti menentukan:
1. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan mengarahkan riset
2. Setting/ tempat dan partisipan
3. Bagaimana akses, cara masuk ke dalam situasi, dan mendapatkan persetujuan dari partisipan
4. Waktu/ periode penelitian
5. Metode/ strategi-strategi yg tepat
6. Teori
7. Identifikasi dari bias-bias/ ideologi peneliti
8. Persyaratan yang berkaitan dengan kode etik (mis. Persetujuan dari komisi kode etik)
Sebagai tambahan, ada baiknya mengenal karakteristik disain kualitatif
Karakteristik disain kualitatif
1. Holistik: melihat gejala secara keseluruhan dan mulai dengan mencari pengertian/ makna keseluruhan
2. Melihat hubungan-hubungan dalam suatu sistem/ budaya
3. Mengacu pada hal-hal yang sifatnya pribadi, berhubungan langsung dgn fenomena yg diteliti
4. Difokuskan utk mengerti situasi sosial, tdk perlu utk meramalkan situasi tsb
5. Menuntut peneliti utk tinggal pada setting tersebut dalam kurun waktu tertentu
6. Menuntut waktu analisis yg sama dengan waktu pengumpulan data di lapangan
7. Menuntut peneliti untuk mengembangkan suatu model tentang apa yg ada pd situasi sosial
8. Mengharuskan peneliti mjd “alat penguji” ® memiliki kemampuan observasi dan wawancara langsung
9. Menyangkut/ mempertimbangkan masalah-masalah kode etik
10. memungkinkan penjelasan tentang peranan peneliti sekaligus bias-bias dan ideologinya
11. menuntut proses analisis yg terus menerus
2. Pelaksanaan
Pelaksanaan penelitian & pengembangan disain dilakukan terus menerus
(1) melakukan penelitian penjajagan (pilot study) sebelum melakukan penelitian utama. Mis:
§ Melakukan wawancara singkat dgn partisipan/ informan yg penting
§ Melakukan observasi singkat
§ Melakukan peninjauan terhadap dokumen, dsb
Pilot study memungkinkan peneliti utk:
a. Memusatkan perhatian pada hal-hal yg penting yg sebelumnya belum pernah diteliti
b. Mentest pertanyaan
c. Membangun raport dgn partisipan
d. Memantapkan pola-pola komunikasi
e. Dgn meneliti dokumen-dokumen, peneliti juga dapat memperoleh insight untuk mempertajam penelitian yg akan dilakukannya.
(2) mempertimbangkan penggunaan waktu seefektif mungkin, dan masalah-masalah yg dihadapi partisipan & peneliti.
§ Kesiapan untuk mengatur jadwal wawancara yg fleksibel
§ Mengubah waktu wawancara & observasi bila diperlukan
§ Menambah/ mengulang wawancara & observasi
§ Mengganti partisipan bila ada hal-hal yg di luar dugaan (kecelakaan)
§ Menyusun kembali persetujuan antara peneliti & partisipan
§ Menyesuaikan antara apa yg menjadi fokus penelitian & dugaan-dugaan peneliti
Perhatian
Melakukan observasi & wawancara tidak berarti bahwa penelitian tersebut bersifat kualitatif.
Peneliti kualitatif harus:
1. Mencari makna & sudut pandang partisipan
2. Mencari hubungan-hubungan yg berkaitan dgn struktur kejadian & distribusi dari peristiwa-peristiwa dalam kurun waktu tertentu
3. Mencari hal-hal yg tidak sesuai/ cocok & bertentangan dr gejala yg diteliti
3. Cooling down
Keputusan-keputusan tentang disain dibuat pada akhir penelitian.
1. Peneliti harus memutuskan kapan harus meninggalkan tempat penelitian. Kadang-kadang disertai suatu peristiwa yg traumatik/ mengharukan krn rapport yg telah terbina dgn partisipan
Mis: dr pertemuan 5x seminggu menjadi 3x, kmdn 1x seminggu & akhirnya ditutup dgn pertemuan untuk memverivikasi transkrip interview
2. Mulai melakukan analisa final dikaitkan dgn konsep-konsep yg telah ditentukan
3. Membuat working model yg menjelaskan tingkah laku yg ingin diteliti
4. Mencek working model dgn data dr lapangan, dokumen, dll
5. Menyajikan data dalam bentuk narasi yg dilengkapi dgn penjelasan partispan + interpretasi dari peneliti sesuai dengan teori yg dipakai
Triangulasi
Utk melakukan pengecekan atas hasil penelitian dilakukan 5 macam triangulasi:
1. Data triangulation
Penggunaan bbg sumber data
2. Investigator triangulation
Penggunaan beberapa org peneliti/ evaluator
3. Theory triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai pendekatan untuk menginterpretasikan data
4. Methodological triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai metode untuk meneliti suatu masalah
5. Interdisciplinary triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai ilmu untuk meneliti & menginterpretasi suatu masalah
Beberapa hal penting dalam penulisan riset kualitatif
1. Pusatkan perhatian pada pengalaman pribadi/ self-story. Kata-kata/ kalimat kunci & pernyataan-pernyataan yg menjelaskan secara langsung fenomena yg diteliti
2. Interpretasikan arti-arti dr kalimat-kalimat tsb sebagaimana seorang pembaca mengartikan informasi tsb
3. Bila mungkin, carilah interpretasi dr partisipan
4. Periksa kembali makna-makna dari hal-hal tsb, berkaitan dgn penjelasan tentang fenomena yg diteliti
5. Lakukan suatu penjelasan tentative thd fenomena tsb sehubungan dgn ciri-ciri yg selalu berulang
Maka, ini berarti bhw peneliti memeperlakukan seluruh data secara sama.
Peneliti dapat melakukan:
1. Kategorisasi, pengelompokkan data untuk menginterpretasikan mereka
2. Melakukan analisa komparatif scr konstan untuk mencari pernyataan-pernyataan dari tingkah laku yg muncul untuk jangka waktu tertentu & situasi yg berbeda
3. Menemukan konflik-konflik & ketegangan-ketegangan dr hal-hal yg tdk sesuai
4. Setelah memahami betul situasi & kondisi (konteks), menganalisa & memikirkan data tsb, ia akan menemukan makna dr fenomena yg diteliti
Hindari
Methodolatry
Method+idolatry: preokupasi pada metode dan mengabaikan hal-hal penting dari kenyataan yang disampaikan oleh partisipan
Masalah kredibilitas
1. Tehnik& metode apa yang diapakai untuk memastikan integritas, validitas dan keakuratan penemuan
2. Apa pengalaman & kualifikasi peneliti
3. Asumsi apa yang mendasari penelitian
Validitas, reliabilitas dan generalisasi
Validitas:
a. Menyangkut deskripsi dan eksplanasi dan sejauh mana eksplanasi sesuai dengan deskripsi,
b. Apakah eksplanasi itu kredibel
Generalisasi
c. Bukan tujuan penelitian kualitatif karena tidak ada interpretasi tunggal yang benar
Reliabilitas
d. Nilai dari penelitian kualitatif adalah pada keunikan, jadi reliabilitas dalam arti pengulangan tidak berarti
Jadi untuk betul-betul menyatu dengan penelitian kualitatif diperlukan “passion for people, communication & understanding people”
Kekuatan data kualitatif
1. Fokus pada situasi alamiah atau kehidupan nyata
2. Spesifik pada situasi atau konteks tertentu. Jadi data tidak dapat dipisahkan dari konteksnya sehingga dapat dimengerti secara utuh
3. Kaya, menyeluruh, jadi dapat mengungkapkan kompleksitas dan “kebenaran” yang nyata.
4. Dikumpulkan dalam jangka waktu tertentu, jadi proses yang terjadi dapat dilihat sehingga hubungan antara faktor-faktor yang ada dapat dievaluasi
5. Fleksibilitas dalam pengumpulan data dapat membuat kita mengerti betul proses perubahan yang terjadi
6. Karena berdasarkan pengalaman hidup yang nyata, kita dapat mempelajari “arti” atau “makna” yang diterapkan oleh manusia terhadap persepsi, asumsi, prasangka, dan perkiraan.
7. Merupakan strategi yang terbaik untuk menemukan hal-hal baru untuk mengembangkan hipotesis.
8. Dapat memperjelas, memperkuat, memberikan interpretasi lebih jauh terhadap data kuantitatif.
Analisis data
Mengandung tiga aktivitas yang berjalan atau berlangsung hampir bersamaan:
1. Data reduction
Proses menyeleksi, memfokuskan, menyederhanakan, mengabstraksikan, dan mengubah data yang diperoleh dari lapangan/transkrip
Data reduction sudah mulai dilakukan sebelum data collection yaitu dalam bentuk:
- Menentukan kerangka konseptual
- Memilih kasus
- Membuat pertanyaan penelitian
- Menentukan cara pengumpulan data
data reduction sesudah data collection:
- Menulis kesimpulan sementara
- Membuat coding
- Memilih tema-tema tertentu
- Membuat pengelompokan
- Menulis catatan-catatan
Data reduction berlansung terus sampai dengan laporan terakhir selesai.
2. Data display
- Informasi yang diorganisasikan, diringkas, dan disusun sehingga memungkinkan dibuat kesimpulan dan tindakan tindakan tertentu
- Dengan membuat display, kita mampu mengerti apa yang terjadi dan kemudian melakukan sesuatu berdasarkan pengertian kita
- Macam-macam display: matriks, grafik, charts, networks.
3. Penarikan kesimpulan dan verifikasi
- Sejak data collection kita sudah mulai menentukan apa “arti” dari sesuatu. Jadi melihat keteraturan pola-pola, penjelasan, kemungkinan dari konfigurasi, hubungan sebab akibat dsb.
- Kesimpulan tidak dianggap pasti atau absolut tetapi dibiarkan terbuka untuk perubahan sehingga kesimpulan akhir baru bisa dicapai ketika data collection berakhir
- Kesimpulan diverifikasi terus menerus selama proses analisis dengan cara:
(1) Mencek kembali berdasarkan data yang ada
(2) Mendiskusikan dengan teman sejawat
(3) Mencek dengan data dari informan lain
(4) Dikonfirmasikan dengan kenyataan
Komponen-komponen data analisis
Flow model
Data collection period
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Data reduction
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipatory during post
Data display
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
during post
Conclusion drawing/verification
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
during post
Interactive model
data collection
data display
data reduction
conclusion drawing/
verification
Sumber: qualitative data analysis (miles & huberman, 1994, p.10 -12)
Penulisan hasil penelitian
Tahap-tahap yang harus diperhatikan:
1. Kenali siapa yang akan membaca laporan penelitian
2. Mengembangkan komposisi dari struktur laporan
3. Mengikuti prosedur-prosedur tertentu, mis. Meminta informan untuk membaca laporan tersebut
Tips:
1. Mulai menulis sejak awal penelitian
2. Tetap menulis beberapa draft selama penelitian, jangan menunggu sampai penelitian berakhir
3. Untuk case study report ada enam alternatif struktur:
Linear analytic, comparative, chronological, theory building, suspence, unsequenced.
Macam-macam gaya penulisan:
The realist
Berusaha membuat gejala atau dunia informannya menjadi transparan:
1. Mainstream realist
Memberikan gambaran se realistis mungkin tentang peristiwa, manusia & pengalamannya. Misalnya dengan memberikan gambaran struktur kelompok yang diteliti untuk menjelaskan cara hidup kelompok tertentu
2. Interpretive realist
Dalam tulisannya peneliti menyelipkan interpretasinya terhadap gejala yang dijelaskannya
3. Descriptive realist
Mencoba menjaga jarak dengan gejala yang ditelitinya dengan membiarkan gejala itu menjelaskan dirinya sendiri
Thin description
Contoh: a berangkat dari rumah pukul 7.00 pagi, tiba di kantor jam 8.00, ia bertemu dengan x kemudian mereka minum kopi bersama-sama sampai jam 8.30.
Thick description
Contoh: mereka tiba di tempat itu tepat waktu makan siang, kemudian mereka berunding apakah akan memilih restoran yang menyajikan makanan sunda atau padang yang pasti pedas dan dapat menimbulkan persoalan bagi tamunya yang baru datang dari swedia. Tetapi ternyata tamunya adalah keturunan belanda yang masa kecilnya pernah tinggal di darah sumatera bersama kakeknya yang memimpin suatu perkebunan karet. Jadi makanan pedas tidak menjadi soal baginya.
Suatu tulisan mengenai gejala sosial dapat dianalisis dalam kaitannya dengan:
1. Dunia nyata dari pengalaman hidup dan penyajiannya dalam tulisan
2. Tulisan dan penulisnya
3. Subyek dan makna yang diberikan oleh mereka
4. Pembaca dan tulisan yang dibaca
Beberapa alternatif struktur tulisan
Kombinasi analisis dan sintesis dan pilih antara “climax first” atau “climax last”
Tiga bagian utama yang harus ada dalam laporan:
Pendahuluan (latar belakang & metode)
Isi (argumentasi dari thesis, tema, beberapa topik terkait),
Kesimpulan
Terdiri dari:
Pertanyaan umum
Sekelumit data,
Tinjauan terhadap penelitian-penelitian terdahulu
Bagian utama dari laporan (gabungan antara deskripsi, analisis dan elaborasi)
Kesimpulan
Appendix (pengumpulan data dan proses analisis)
Dengan urutan:
“what”
“why” (justifikasi dan kerangka pikir konseptual)
“how” (metode)
“analisis” (hasil, bisa dibagi dalam beberapa bab)
“meaning” (kesimpulan dan kaitannya dengan hal-hal lain)
Dengan urutan:
Yang luas: pendahuluan
Yang spesifik: definisi dari problem dan tinjauan pustaka
Yang lebih spesifik: metode dan hasil
Yang luas kembali: kesimpulan, diskusi dan implikasi
Terdiri dari
Tujuan / konteks penelitian
Metodologi
Data
Gabungan deskripsi dan interpretasi
Validasi / verifikasi dari hasil
Kesimpulan dan rekomendasi
Ringkasan
BAB
Politik dan etika dalam penelitian kualitatif
Beberapa hal yang dapat mempengaruhi penelitian kualitatif (khususnya fieldwork)
Kepribadian peneliti
Menentukan pilihan topik, pendekatan, dan kemampuan di lapangan, kelangsungan penelitian juga ditentukan oleh keadaan keluarga peneliti dan dukungan dari pasangan
Latar belakang institusional
Peneliti dari lembaga penelitian yang terkenal dan mempunyai reputasi baik biasanya akan lebih mudah untuk mendapatkan akses. Namun di lain pihak, hal ini juga bisa menghambat
Kedekatan geografis
Lebih mudah dan memungkinkan untuk melakukan penelitian di lokasi yang dekat/ mudah dicapai daripada tempat terpencil
Sifat dari objek penelitian
Penelitian terhadap apapun mempengarhi kemungkinan untuk akses, persetujuan, dana, dan konflik-konflik dalam penelitian tersebut
Gatekeepers (orang yang memungkinkan peneliti mengakses objek penelitian)
Status dari peneliti di lapangan
Kehadiran peneliti di lapangan mempengaruhi keadaan. Peneliti tunggal lebih mudah menyatu dengan fenomena yang diteliti dibandingkan dengan peneliti kelompok karena mereka tampak lebih menyolok
Harapan-harapan dalam tim peneliti
Kepemimpinan, pengawasan, disiplin, semangat, status, gaji, prospek karier dan pembagian kerja dapat menyebabkan ketegangan-ketegangan yang tidak diharapkan di lapangan dan juga dalam publikasi
Faktor-faktor lain yang juga dapat mempengaruhi adalah: gender, status, latar belakang etnik, birokrasi, kecelakaan/ musibah, dan keberuntungan
Publikasi hasil penelitian
Orang yang diteliti mungkin saja kecewa ketika kehidupannya digambarkan tidak sebagaimana dia mempersepsikannya
Tuntutan moral dan sosial
Menyangkut kode etik penelitian
Kode etik
Masalah
§ Banyak penelitian yang terkenal di dunia ternyata berakibat merugikan orang banyak.
Mis. Eksperimen di kamp konsentrasi, penelitian dengan manhattan project yang mendorong dijatuhkannya bom atom di jepang pada tahun 1945
§ Kontroversi antara perlindungan manusia dan kebebasan untuk melakukan penelitian dan mempublikasikan hasil penelitian
Hal-hal yang menyangkut etika
Persetujuan dari partisipan
Partisipan berhak untuk diberitahu bahwa mereka sedang diteliti dan apa sifat penelitiannya. Partisipan juga berhak untuk mengndurkan diri dari penelitian.
Namun, ada penelitian-penelitian yang sengaja tidak diberitahukan kepada partisipannya karena dianggap akan mempengaruhi situasi di lapangan. Mis. Penelitian terhadap perilaku kerusuhan ® peneliti tidka menjelaskan tujuan kehadirannya
Penipuan
Sebaiknya peneliti berterus terang tentang apa yang dikerjakannya dan siapa dia.
Namun, kaadang-kadang ada peneliti yang berperan seolah-olah dia adalah seseorang yang “lain” dalam rangka mendapatkan data yang akurat. Ini boleh-boleh saja selama tidak membahayakan orang yang ditelitinya, yang penting jangan mengingkari janji, mencuri dokumen, dan berbohong pada partisipan untuk hal-hal yang tidak perlu
Privacy, harm, identification, dan confidentiality
Para ahli yang beraliran tegas akan mengatakan bahwa lokasi dan identitas orang yang diteliti dan tempat penelitian harus terjaga kerahasiaannya dalam publikasi hasil penelitian. Data yang dikumpulkan disimpan dengan aman,
Dalam bentuk yang anonim.
Namun, sulit ditarik garis yang tegas antara hal-hal yang bersifat pribadi (private) dan umum (public). Juga sulit untuk betul-betul merahasiakan karena akan dapat dilihat. Mis. Dalam ucapan terima kasih atau daftar bacaan/ dokumen.
Kepercayaan dan penghianatan
Dalam penelitian kualitatif biasa hubungan antara peneliti dan partisipan yang diteliti, dapat sangat akrab dengan peneliti sendiri, dapat dianggap sudah menjadi bagian dari kelompok yang diteliti.
Namun ada saatnya peneliti harus mengakhiri hubungan ini pada saat penelitian sudah selesai dan kemudian hasil penelitian dipublikasikan. Hal ini dapat menimbulkan perasaan “ditinggalkan” dan “dihianati” di pihak orang/ kelompok yang diteliti.
Jadi dengan mempertimbangkan hal-hal tersebut di atas, peneliti kualitatif harus mempertimbangkan banyak sekali namun tidak usah takut untuk melakukan penelitian kualitatif.
Paradigma ilmu-ilmu sosial
Paradigma:
Pernyataan yang menerangkan bagaimana dunia dan kehidupan dipersepsikan
Teori
Suatu set pernyataan yang sistematis dan saling berkaitan yang dikembangkan melalui penelitian untuk menjelaskan gejala-gejala khusus
Konsep
Bagian dari teori yang menjelaskan tentang nama atau label untuk mengklasifikasi atau memberi pengertian tentang objek, pengalaman, peristiwa atu hubungan-hubungan
Metodologi
Model yang mencakup prinsip-prinsip teoretis maupun kerangka pandang yang menjadi pedoman mengenai bagaimana riset akan dilaksanakan dalam konteks pradigma tertentu
Metode
Cara yang dipergunakan peneliti untuk mengumpulkan bukti-bukti empiris
Perspektif teoretis ilmu-ilmu sosial
Positivitik
Interpretif
Kritikal
Realitas
Objektif, di luar individu
Subjektif
Di antara subjektivitas dan objektivitas
Dipersepsikan melalui indera
Diciptakan dan diinterpretasikan
Diciptakan, bukan ditemukan
Dipersepsikan seragam
Dipersepsikan secara unik
Merupakan hal yang kompleks
Diatur oleh hukum-hukum universal
Ditampilkan dalam simbol-simbol yang deskriptif
Berada dalam ketegangan/
Kontradiksi
Manusia
Individu rasional
Pencipta dunia
Dinamis
Mengikuti hukum diluar dirinya
Memberikan arti pada dunia
Pencipta nasib
Tidak memiliki kebebasan
Tidak dibatasi oleh hukum di luar dirinya
Diarahkan secara tidak tepat
Menciptakan rangkaian makna
Dihalangi dari realisasi potensinya secara penuh
Ilmu
Didasari hukum dan proseduryang ketat
Didasari pengetahuan sehari hari
Diantara positivisme dan interpretif
Deduktif
Induktif
Membebaskan dan memberdayakan
Nomotetis
Hukum universal
Idiografis
Spesifik
Didasarkan pada pemberdayaan
Diperoleh dari penginderaan
Diperoleh dari interpretasi dan pemahaman
Menjelaskan dinamika-dinamika sistem yang tercipta
Bebas nilai
Tidak bebas nilai
Tidak bebas nilai
Tujuan
Peneli
Tian
Menjelaskan fakta, penyebab dan efek
Menginterpretasi dunia
Mengungkap yg di balik permukaan
Meramalkan
Memahami kehidupan sosial
Mengungkap mitos dan ilusi
Menekankan fakta, objektif, di luar
Menekankan makna
Membuka keyakinan yang keliru, membebaskan memberdayakan
Bab 2
Penelitian kualitatif
Definisi
Penelitian kualitatif tidak mungkin didefinisikan secara tunggal dan pasti
Penelitian kualitatif adalah “interpretative study” dari suatu masalah yang spesifik berdasarkan pandangan peneliti
Jadi penelitian kualitatif adalah
A. Suatu usaha untuk menangkap esensi dari gejala
B. Suatu eksplorasi, elaborasi dan sistemisasi dari gejala yang ada
C. suatu penjelasan dari makna suatu masalah
Delapan pertanyaan tentang pendekatan kualitatif
1. Dapatkah pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif dipakai bersama?
2. Apakah penelitian kualitatif itu ilmiah?
3. Apa bedanya penelitian kualitatif dengan apa yang dilakukan oleh guru, wartawan, dan artis?
4. Apakah penemuan kualitatif dapat digeneralisasi?
5. Bagaimana pengaruh opini, prasangka, dan bias-bias lainnya dari peneliti terhadap data?
6. Bukankah kehadiran peneliti dapat mempengaruhi perilaku orang-orang yang diteliti? (pasti mempengaruhi)
7. Dapatkah dua orang peneliti yang meneliti hal yang sama menghasilkan hal yang sama? (belum tentu)
8. Apa perbedaan antara pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif?
Karakteristik penelitian
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
1.
Situasi
Alamiah – berorientasi pada penemuan dari situasi apa adanya
Asumsi: realitas, kondisi sosial itu kompleks, bervariasi dan tidak statis
1.
Situasi
Dimanipulasi, di ubah
Pengaruh-pengaruh eksternal dikendalikan
Asumsi:
Kondisi konstan
2.
Perspektif:
Holistik
Gejala adalah keseluruhan yang kompleks
Mencoba memahami situasi secara mendalam
Tidak membatasi penelitian ke dalam variabel-variabel
Dinamis/ berkembang
Jadi perubahan adalah wajar
2.
Perspektif:
Reduktif
Gejala disederhanakan, faktor-faktor penting diabaikan, dilakukan kuantifikasi
3.
Orientasi:
Pada kasus unik dengan bahasan mendalam
3.
Orientasi:
pada keseragaman -- generalisasi
4.
Istilah yang berkaitan:
Ethnography
Field work
Soft data
Symbolic interaction
Inner perspective
Naturalistic
Ethnomethodological
Descriptive
Participantobservation
Phenomenological
Documentary
Life history
Case study
Ecological
4.
Istilah yang berkaitan:
Experimental
Hard data
Outer perspective
Empirical
Positivist
Social facts
Statistical
5.
Teori yang berkaitan
Symbolic interaction
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenology
Culture
Idealism
5
Teori yang berkaitan
Structural- functionalism
Realism, positivism
Behaviouralism
Logical empiricism
System theory
6.
Tujuan:
Develop sensitizing concepts
Describe multiple realities
Grounded theory
Develop understanding
6.
Tujuan
Theory testing
Establish the facts
Statistical descrption
Show relationships between variables
Prediction
7.
Disain penelitian fleksibel, berkembang dan umum
Dinyatakan sekilas bagaimana proses penelitian akan berlangsung
7.
Disain penelitian sudah ditentukan sejak awal, terstruktur, formal, spesifik, direncanakan pelaksanaannya secara terinci
8.
Proposal:
Singkat
Spekulatif
Menyarankan bidang-bidang penelitian yang mungkin relevan
Bisa ditulis setelah pengambilan data
Tidak berdasarkan pada pembahasan literatur secara mendalam
Pendekatan hanya dinyatakan secara umum
8.
Proposal:
Panjang
Terinci dan fokusnya spesifik
Terinci dan prosedurnya spesifik
Dibuat dengan membahas sejumlah literatur penting
Ditulis sebelum pengumpulan data
Hipotesa dinyatakaan secara tegas
9.
Data:
Deskriptif
Dokumen pribadi
Catatan dari lapangan
Foto
Pendapat orang itu sendiri
Dokumen formal atau peninggalan2
9.
Data:
Kuantitatif
Coding yang dapat dihitung
Perhitungan, pengukuran
Variable yang dioperasionalisasikan
Perhitungan statistik
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
10.
Metode:
Observasi dengan atau tanpa alat
Meninjau berbagai dokumen, karya atau peninggalan
Analisis catatan pribadi
Observasi partisipatif
Wawancara terbuka
Wawancara dengan focus-group
Studi kasus
Studi riwayat hidup
Analisis foto
10.
Metode:
Eksperimen
Survey
Wawancara terstruktur
Quasi experiments
Observasi terstruktur
Penyusunan data
11.
Hubungan dengan subjek:
Personal untuk memahami realitas
Empati
Menekankan kepercayaan
Sejajar
Kontak intensif
Subjek sebagai teman
11.
Hubungan dengan subjek:
Peneliti menjauh dari subyek penelitian agar objektif
Hanya pada situasi itu
Hubungan jangka pendek dan berjarak
Formal
12.
Alat:
Alat-alat tulis
Tape recorder
Video recorder
Peneliti adalah instrumen kunci
12.
Alat:
Inventories
Kuesioner
Indeks
Computer
Timbangan
Skor tes
Peneliti bisa gabungan dari beberapa orang dengan perannya masing-masing
13.
Analisis:
Induktif
Dari masalah yang luas menjadi sempit
Mencoba memahami situasi secara mendalam
Tidak membatasi penelitian ke dalam variabel-variabel
Dilakukan terus menerus
Model, tema, konsep
Perbandingan secara konstan
14.
Analisis:
Deduktif
Dari masalah yang sempit menjadi luas
Variabel-variabel-
Nya dipilih oleh peneliti berdasarkan teori tertentu
Dilakukan untuk menyimpulkan data yang terkumpul
Perhitungan statistik
14.
Masalah yang dihadapi
Memakan waktu lama
Sulit untuk mereduksi data
Reliabilitas
Prosedur tidak terstandardisasi
Sulit untuk meneliti populasi yang besar
14.
Masalah yang dihadapi
Mengontrol variabel-variabel lain
Validitas
Sampel
Kualitatif
Kuantitatif
1.
Sedikit—mendalam
1.
Banyak-- generalisasi
2.
tidak ditentukan sejak awal berapa jumlahnya
Tergantung pada “saturation point”
2.
Ditentukan dengan pasti jumlahnya
Variabel luar dikontrol
3.
Ditentukan secara purposive (kriteria tertentu) pada konteks tertentu
3.
Dipilih secara acak
4.
Prinsip pengambilan sample ditentukan oleh tujuan penelitian:
A.Sampel ekstrim
B.Sampel yang mewakili penghayatan terhadap fenomena secara intensif
C.Sampel dengan variasi maksimum
D. Sample homogen
E. Sampel tipikal – mewakili kelompok normal dari sekelompok orang tertentu
F. Purposif terstratifikasi
G. Sampel kritikal: ada keterbatasan waktu dan dana
H. Sampel bole salju
I. Sampel berdasarkan teori
4.
Terdapat control groups
Bab 3
Berbagai tipe penelitian kualitatif
Etnografi
Mendeskripsikan suatu budaya dan memahami cara-cara hidup dari sudut pandang masyarakatnya.
Karakteristik
1. Tingkah laku dipahami berdasarkan shared culture meanings
2. Kelompok yang diteliti pada setting alamiah (observasi partisipasi)
3. Tujuan: pemahaman keseluruhan (holistik kontekstual)
4. Refleksifitas: peneliti adalah bagian dari dunia yang diteliti dan dipengaruhi oleh hal tersebut.
5. Emics (pandangan informan) dan etics (perspektif peneliti) saling terkait.
Proses penelitian
1. Peneliti adalah orang yang belajar tentang budaya/ kelompok yang diteliti (posisinya inferior atau tidak tahu apa-apa)
2. Pengamatan dan hubungan berlangsung jangka panjang untuk memperoleh pengalaman dalam rutinitas kehidupan, kejadian khusus, dilakukan dalam berbagai konteks.
3. Menggunakan pengumpulan data yang beragam untuk memahami kompleksitas sistem yang diteliti
Masalah
1. Rasa percaya: apakah kelompok percaya kepada peneliti
2. Kedekatan vs menjaga jarak dengan fenomena yang diteliti
Grounded theory
Penelitian kualitatif yang menggunakan satu set prosedur sistematik untuk mengembangkan teori mengenai suatu fenomena yang diperoleh secara induktif
Di dalam grounded theory tidak ada teori tertentu maupun perumusan hipotesis. Penelitian dimulai dengan “open mind” dan berakhir dengan perumusan suatu teori yang tepat dan dapat memberi penjelasan terhadap area yang diteliti
Proses pengumpulan data
Pengumpulan - analisa - pengumpulan- analisa - dst - th. Sat.
Data 1 data 1 data 2 data 2
Theoretical sensitivity
Kemampuan peneliti untuk mengenali hal-hal penting dalam data dan memberikan arti terhadap hal-hal tersebut.
Peneliti yang baik tidak cukup hanya mempelajari tentang grounded theory dari buku tetapi harus mempraktekannya
Peneliti harus bersikap terbuka dan fleksibel.
Prosedur coding
1. Open coding: memberi nama dan membuat kategori-kategori tentang fenomena dengan melihat data secara teliti
Contoh:
Memberi nama pada aktivitas/ kualitas/ karakteristik subyek yang diteliti
Membuat kategori berdasarkan
Properti dimensi
Frekuensi sering-jarang
Intensitas tinggi –rendah
Durasi lama sebentar
2. Axial coding: suatu set prosedur yang menyatukan kembali data-data setelah mengalami open coding, dengan cara membuat hubungan antar kategori dengan menggunakan paradigma coding (proses induktif---deduktif)
(a) kondisi penyebab (b) fenomena (c) konteks
(d) intevening conditions (e) strategi tindakan
(f) konsekuansi
3. Selective coding: proses memilih kategori inti secara sistematis menghubungkannya dengan kategori-kategori lain, memvalidasi hubungan-hubungan tersebut dan melengkapi kategori-ketegori yang belum lengkap.
Studi kasus
Tujuan
1. Meneliti satu atau sejumlah kasus secara detil dan mendalam dengan menggunakan metode-metode yang tepat
2. Memahami kasus dalam situasi alamiahnya, mengenali kompelksitas dan konteksnya, memperoleh gambaran menyeluruh (holistik)
studi kasus dilakukan bila:
1. Pertanyaan utama: “how” & “why”
2. Fenomena sulit dikontrol
3. Fokus pada fenomena kontemporer pada konteks ilmiah
Jenis-jenis studi kasus
1. Intrinsic case study: untuk memperoleh pemahaman yang lebih baik mengenai kasus
2. Instrumental case study: meneliti kasus untuk memberi insight pada suatu issue atau untuk meperbaiki teori
3. Collective case study: mempelajari beberapa kasus instrumental untuk memahami lebih jauh mengenai fenomena, populasi, atau kondisi umum
Disain studi kasus
Komponen-komponen:
- Pertanyaan penelitian
- Tujuan penelitian
- Unit analisa
- Menghubungkan data dengan tujuan penelitian
- Kriteria untuk interpretasi data
Pengembangan teori sebagai bagian dari disain
Generalisasi hasil
Kriteria penilaian studi kasus
Validitas internal
Seberapa benarkah temuan dari studi
Validitas eksternal
Sejauh mana hasil penelitian dapat diterapkan pada setting atau kelompok orang yang berbeda,
Reliabilitas
Bagaimana penelitian yang sama dapat diulang pada saat yang berbeda, dengan metode yang sama, partisipan yang sama, dalam konteks yang sama
Objektivitas
Bagaimana kita yakin bahwa temuan penelitian bukan merupakan sesuatu yang diwarnai oleh bias dan prasangka-prasangka
Fleksibilitas disain
Pemilihan kasus tunggal
- Critical case: untuk membuktikan suatu teori
- Extreme/ unique case: biasanya kasus klinis
- Revelatory case: sebelumnya tidak dapat diteliti
pemilihan kasus ganda
- Multiple cases tidak sama dengan multiple respondents, tetapi mengikuti logika replikasi (validitas eksternal)
- Pemilihan kasus-kasus harus dapat:
Meramalkan munculnya hasil yang sama
Memunculkan hasil yang berbeda tetapi sudah diprediksi
- Harus ada kepekaan teoritis yang kaya
(deduktif)
Persiapan pengumpulan data
Peneliti yang baik:
- Mampu mengajukan pertanyaan yang baik
- Pendengar yang baik
- Adaptif dan fleksibel
- Memahami masalah yang diteliti
- Tidak bias oleh pendapat-pendapat yang sudah terbentuk.
perlu ada pelatihan bagi peneliti agar mereka
memahami konsep-konsep dasar, terminologi, dan
isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan penelitian
Penyusunan protokol (untuk reliabilitas)
protokol terdiri dari alat pengumpul data,
prosedur dan aturan-aturan umum dalam
mempergunakan alat tersebut
Protokol harus mencakup:
- Gambaran tentang proyek studi kasus
- Prosedur lapangan
- Pertenyaan penelitian
- Panduan untuk laporan studi kasus
pilot case study
pilot study membantu peneliti untuk
mengembangkan pertanyaan yang relevan juga
untuk klarifikasi konsep.
Pelaksanaan penelitian
Laporkan semua yang terjadi saat penelitian dilakukan
Sumber data
1. Dokumen
2. Catatan arsip
3. Wawancara
4. Observasi langsung
5. Observasi partisipasi
6. Artifak
Prinsip pengumpulan data
1. Menggunakan berbagai sumber data
- triangulasi: penemuan/ kesmpulan menjadi lebih
meyakinkan (untuk validitas konstruk)
- peneliti harus memiliki ketrampilan dalam
menggunakan berbagai sumber data
2. Membuat data base (untuk reliabilitas)
- Catatan
- Dokumen (annotated bibliography)
- Tabulasi
- “narratives” peneliti membuat jawaban dari pertanyaan di protokol
3. Chain of evidence (untuk reliabilitas dan validitas konstruk) agar external observer dapat mengikuti bagaimana proses diperolehnya bukti-bukti, mulai dari masalah penelitian sampai dengan kesimpulan dan sebaliknya
Analisis data
Beberapa cara yang disarankan
1. Melaporkan jumlah data yang terkumpul (lembar transkrip ) dan lamanya waktu yang digunakan untuk melakukan kegiatan pengolahan dari data kasar menjadi transkrip.
2. Menjadikan data-data yang dapat diolah secara statistik
3. Menggunakan berbagai tehnik analisa (matriks, tabulasi frekuensi, dsb)
Strategi umum
1. Merujuk pada proposisi-proposisi teoritis
2. Mengembangkan deskripsi kasus
Cara analisa yang dominan
1. Pattern matching membandingkan beberapa pola yang diperoleh secara empiris dengan pola yang diramalkan
2. Explanation- building: peneliti membuat penjelasan tentang kasus
3. Time-series analysis: peneliti mempertanyaan bagaimana dan mengapa tentang hubungan antara beberapa kejadian dalam jangka waktu tertentu
Penyusunan laporan
1. Identifikasi audience
Bentuk laporan disesuaikan dengan audience
2. Berbagai bentuk penyajian
- Studi kasus tunggal : buku, artikel, jurnal
- Studi kasus ganda: muliple narratives
- Bentuk pertanyaan-jawaban
- Analisa perbandingan kasus
3. Struktur ilustratif
- Linear analitik: bentuk standar
- Perbandingan: membandingkan berbagai deskripsi tentang kasus yang sama
- Kronologis: berdasarkan sejarah kasus
- Pembentukan teori
- Suspence: hasil studi kasus diletakkan pada bagian awal
- Tidak berurutan
Action research
Studi tentang suatu situasi sosial dengan tujuan untuk memperbaiki kualitas dari tindakan yang dilakukan di dalamnya
Prosedur yang didisain untuk menghadapi masalah konkrit yang terdapat di dalam suatu situasi tertentu
Karakteristik
1. Tindakan dan evaluasi berjalan secara terpisah tetapi dilakukan bersamaan, tujuannya untuk mengubah tingkah laku individu secara langsung. Contoh: kekerasan terhadap wanita
2. Participatory/collaborative research: kelompok yang diteliti membuat keputusan tentang bentuk studi dan cara analisa data. Contoh: mengubah wanita untuk mengubah perilaku mereka terhadap suami
3. Menentukan jumlah absolut atau relatif dari orang-orang yang memiliki pengalaman atau kebutuhan tertentu
4. Eavaluation research: mengevaluasi efektivitas berbagai tindakan tyang berbeda dalam memecahkan masalah
5. Demystification: keyakinan bahwa tindakan mengumpulkan pengetahuan juga menciptakan perubahan
Pengumpulan data
Ditujukan untuk memonitor tindakan / usaha perubahan yang dilakukan. Pemilihan berbagai tehnik pengumpulan data disesuaikan dengan jenis informasi yang dibutuhkan
1. Dokumen- dokumen yang berhubungan dengan situasi
2. Menulis catatan harian secara terinci
3. Catatan observasi
4. Kuesioner
5. Wawancara
6. Shadowing: observasi terhadap partisipan dalam jangka waktu tertentu
7. Rekaman video
8. Foto-foto
9. Triangulasi: menggunakan berbagai tehnik untuk mengecek informasi, interpretasi dan keputusan-keputusan
DISAIN RISET KUALITATIF
1. Dimulai dengan pertanyaan tentang manusia dalam kehidupan yang nyata, dalam kurun waktu tertentu
2. Terdapat 3 tahap dalam riset kualitatif: pemanasan, pelaksanaan, dan cooling down
1. Pemanasan
Pada tahap ini peneliti menentukan:
1. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan mengarahkan riset
2. Setting/ tempat dan partisipan
3. Bagaimana akses, cara masuk ke dalam situasi, dan mendapatkan persetujuan dari partisipan
4. Waktu/ periode penelitian
5. Metode/ strategi-strategi yg tepat
6. Teori
7. Identifikasi dari bias-bias/ ideologi peneliti
8. Persyaratan yang berkaitan dengan kode etik (mis. Persetujuan dari komisi kode etik)
Sebagai tambahan, ada baiknya mengenal karakteristik disain kualitatif
Karakteristik disain kualitatif
1. Holistik: melihat gejala secara keseluruhan dan mulai dengan mencari pengertian/ makna keseluruhan
2. Melihat hubungan-hubungan dalam suatu sistem/ budaya
3. Mengacu pada hal-hal yang sifatnya pribadi, berhubungan langsung dgn fenomena yg diteliti
4. Difokuskan utk mengerti situasi sosial, tdk perlu utk meramalkan situasi tsb
5. Menuntut peneliti utk tinggal pada setting tersebut dalam kurun waktu tertentu
6. Menuntut waktu analisis yg sama dengan waktu pengumpulan data di lapangan
7. Menuntut peneliti untuk mengembangkan suatu model tentang apa yg ada pd situasi sosial
8. Mengharuskan peneliti mjd “alat penguji” ® memiliki kemampuan observasi dan wawancara langsung
9. Menyangkut/ mempertimbangkan masalah-masalah kode etik
10. memungkinkan penjelasan tentang peranan peneliti sekaligus bias-bias dan ideologinya
11. menuntut proses analisis yg terus menerus
2. Pelaksanaan
Pelaksanaan penelitian & pengembangan disain dilakukan terus menerus
(1) melakukan penelitian penjajagan (pilot study) sebelum melakukan penelitian utama. Mis:
§ Melakukan wawancara singkat dgn partisipan/ informan yg penting
§ Melakukan observasi singkat
§ Melakukan peninjauan terhadap dokumen, dsb
Pilot study memungkinkan peneliti utk:
a. Memusatkan perhatian pada hal-hal yg penting yg sebelumnya belum pernah diteliti
b. Mentest pertanyaan
c. Membangun raport dgn partisipan
d. Memantapkan pola-pola komunikasi
e. Dgn meneliti dokumen-dokumen, peneliti juga dapat memperoleh insight untuk mempertajam penelitian yg akan dilakukannya.
(2) mempertimbangkan penggunaan waktu seefektif mungkin, dan masalah-masalah yg dihadapi partisipan & peneliti.
§ Kesiapan untuk mengatur jadwal wawancara yg fleksibel
§ Mengubah waktu wawancara & observasi bila diperlukan
§ Menambah/ mengulang wawancara & observasi
§ Mengganti partisipan bila ada hal-hal yg di luar dugaan (kecelakaan)
§ Menyusun kembali persetujuan antara peneliti & partisipan
§ Menyesuaikan antara apa yg menjadi fokus penelitian & dugaan-dugaan peneliti
Perhatian
Melakukan observasi & wawancara tidak berarti bahwa penelitian tersebut bersifat kualitatif.
Peneliti kualitatif harus:
1. Mencari makna & sudut pandang partisipan
2. Mencari hubungan-hubungan yg berkaitan dgn struktur kejadian & distribusi dari peristiwa-peristiwa dalam kurun waktu tertentu
3. Mencari hal-hal yg tidak sesuai/ cocok & bertentangan dr gejala yg diteliti
3. Cooling down
Keputusan-keputusan tentang disain dibuat pada akhir penelitian.
1. Peneliti harus memutuskan kapan harus meninggalkan tempat penelitian. Kadang-kadang disertai suatu peristiwa yg traumatik/ mengharukan krn rapport yg telah terbina dgn partisipan
Mis: dr pertemuan 5x seminggu menjadi 3x, kmdn 1x seminggu & akhirnya ditutup dgn pertemuan untuk memverivikasi transkrip interview
2. Mulai melakukan analisa final dikaitkan dgn konsep-konsep yg telah ditentukan
3. Membuat working model yg menjelaskan tingkah laku yg ingin diteliti
4. Mencek working model dgn data dr lapangan, dokumen, dll
5. Menyajikan data dalam bentuk narasi yg dilengkapi dgn penjelasan partispan + interpretasi dari peneliti sesuai dengan teori yg dipakai
Triangulasi
Utk melakukan pengecekan atas hasil penelitian dilakukan 5 macam triangulasi:
1. Data triangulation
Penggunaan bbg sumber data
2. Investigator triangulation
Penggunaan beberapa org peneliti/ evaluator
3. Theory triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai pendekatan untuk menginterpretasikan data
4. Methodological triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai metode untuk meneliti suatu masalah
5. Interdisciplinary triangulation
Penggunaan berbagai ilmu untuk meneliti & menginterpretasi suatu masalah
Beberapa hal penting dalam penulisan riset kualitatif
1. Pusatkan perhatian pada pengalaman pribadi/ self-story. Kata-kata/ kalimat kunci & pernyataan-pernyataan yg menjelaskan secara langsung fenomena yg diteliti
2. Interpretasikan arti-arti dr kalimat-kalimat tsb sebagaimana seorang pembaca mengartikan informasi tsb
3. Bila mungkin, carilah interpretasi dr partisipan
4. Periksa kembali makna-makna dari hal-hal tsb, berkaitan dgn penjelasan tentang fenomena yg diteliti
5. Lakukan suatu penjelasan tentative thd fenomena tsb sehubungan dgn ciri-ciri yg selalu berulang
Maka, ini berarti bhw peneliti memeperlakukan seluruh data secara sama.
Peneliti dapat melakukan:
1. Kategorisasi, pengelompokkan data untuk menginterpretasikan mereka
2. Melakukan analisa komparatif scr konstan untuk mencari pernyataan-pernyataan dari tingkah laku yg muncul untuk jangka waktu tertentu & situasi yg berbeda
3. Menemukan konflik-konflik & ketegangan-ketegangan dr hal-hal yg tdk sesuai
4. Setelah memahami betul situasi & kondisi (konteks), menganalisa & memikirkan data tsb, ia akan menemukan makna dr fenomena yg diteliti
Hindari
Methodolatry
Method+idolatry: preokupasi pada metode dan mengabaikan hal-hal penting dari kenyataan yang disampaikan oleh partisipan
Masalah kredibilitas
1. Tehnik& metode apa yang diapakai untuk memastikan integritas, validitas dan keakuratan penemuan
2. Apa pengalaman & kualifikasi peneliti
3. Asumsi apa yang mendasari penelitian
Validitas, reliabilitas dan generalisasi
Validitas:
a. Menyangkut deskripsi dan eksplanasi dan sejauh mana eksplanasi sesuai dengan deskripsi,
b. Apakah eksplanasi itu kredibel
Generalisasi
c. Bukan tujuan penelitian kualitatif karena tidak ada interpretasi tunggal yang benar
Reliabilitas
d. Nilai dari penelitian kualitatif adalah pada keunikan, jadi reliabilitas dalam arti pengulangan tidak berarti
Jadi untuk betul-betul menyatu dengan penelitian kualitatif diperlukan “passion for people, communication & understanding people”
Kekuatan data kualitatif
1. Fokus pada situasi alamiah atau kehidupan nyata
2. Spesifik pada situasi atau konteks tertentu. Jadi data tidak dapat dipisahkan dari konteksnya sehingga dapat dimengerti secara utuh
3. Kaya, menyeluruh, jadi dapat mengungkapkan kompleksitas dan “kebenaran” yang nyata.
4. Dikumpulkan dalam jangka waktu tertentu, jadi proses yang terjadi dapat dilihat sehingga hubungan antara faktor-faktor yang ada dapat dievaluasi
5. Fleksibilitas dalam pengumpulan data dapat membuat kita mengerti betul proses perubahan yang terjadi
6. Karena berdasarkan pengalaman hidup yang nyata, kita dapat mempelajari “arti” atau “makna” yang diterapkan oleh manusia terhadap persepsi, asumsi, prasangka, dan perkiraan.
7. Merupakan strategi yang terbaik untuk menemukan hal-hal baru untuk mengembangkan hipotesis.
8. Dapat memperjelas, memperkuat, memberikan interpretasi lebih jauh terhadap data kuantitatif.
Analisis data
Mengandung tiga aktivitas yang berjalan atau berlangsung hampir bersamaan:
1. Data reduction
Proses menyeleksi, memfokuskan, menyederhanakan, mengabstraksikan, dan mengubah data yang diperoleh dari lapangan/transkrip
Data reduction sudah mulai dilakukan sebelum data collection yaitu dalam bentuk:
- Menentukan kerangka konseptual
- Memilih kasus
- Membuat pertanyaan penelitian
- Menentukan cara pengumpulan data
data reduction sesudah data collection:
- Menulis kesimpulan sementara
- Membuat coding
- Memilih tema-tema tertentu
- Membuat pengelompokan
- Menulis catatan-catatan
Data reduction berlansung terus sampai dengan laporan terakhir selesai.
2. Data display
- Informasi yang diorganisasikan, diringkas, dan disusun sehingga memungkinkan dibuat kesimpulan dan tindakan tindakan tertentu
- Dengan membuat display, kita mampu mengerti apa yang terjadi dan kemudian melakukan sesuatu berdasarkan pengertian kita
- Macam-macam display: matriks, grafik, charts, networks.
3. Penarikan kesimpulan dan verifikasi
- Sejak data collection kita sudah mulai menentukan apa “arti” dari sesuatu. Jadi melihat keteraturan pola-pola, penjelasan, kemungkinan dari konfigurasi, hubungan sebab akibat dsb.
- Kesimpulan tidak dianggap pasti atau absolut tetapi dibiarkan terbuka untuk perubahan sehingga kesimpulan akhir baru bisa dicapai ketika data collection berakhir
- Kesimpulan diverifikasi terus menerus selama proses analisis dengan cara:
(1) Mencek kembali berdasarkan data yang ada
(2) Mendiskusikan dengan teman sejawat
(3) Mencek dengan data dari informan lain
(4) Dikonfirmasikan dengan kenyataan
Komponen-komponen data analisis
Flow model
Data collection period
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Data reduction
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipatory during post
Data display
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
during post
Conclusion drawing/verification
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
during post
Interactive model
data collection
data display
data reduction
conclusion drawing/
verification
Sumber: qualitative data analysis (miles & huberman, 1994, p.10 -12)
Penulisan hasil penelitian
Tahap-tahap yang harus diperhatikan:
1. Kenali siapa yang akan membaca laporan penelitian
2. Mengembangkan komposisi dari struktur laporan
3. Mengikuti prosedur-prosedur tertentu, mis. Meminta informan untuk membaca laporan tersebut
Tips:
1. Mulai menulis sejak awal penelitian
2. Tetap menulis beberapa draft selama penelitian, jangan menunggu sampai penelitian berakhir
3. Untuk case study report ada enam alternatif struktur:
Linear analytic, comparative, chronological, theory building, suspence, unsequenced.
Macam-macam gaya penulisan:
The realist
Berusaha membuat gejala atau dunia informannya menjadi transparan:
1. Mainstream realist
Memberikan gambaran se realistis mungkin tentang peristiwa, manusia & pengalamannya. Misalnya dengan memberikan gambaran struktur kelompok yang diteliti untuk menjelaskan cara hidup kelompok tertentu
2. Interpretive realist
Dalam tulisannya peneliti menyelipkan interpretasinya terhadap gejala yang dijelaskannya
3. Descriptive realist
Mencoba menjaga jarak dengan gejala yang ditelitinya dengan membiarkan gejala itu menjelaskan dirinya sendiri
Thin description
Contoh: a berangkat dari rumah pukul 7.00 pagi, tiba di kantor jam 8.00, ia bertemu dengan x kemudian mereka minum kopi bersama-sama sampai jam 8.30.
Thick description
Contoh: mereka tiba di tempat itu tepat waktu makan siang, kemudian mereka berunding apakah akan memilih restoran yang menyajikan makanan sunda atau padang yang pasti pedas dan dapat menimbulkan persoalan bagi tamunya yang baru datang dari swedia. Tetapi ternyata tamunya adalah keturunan belanda yang masa kecilnya pernah tinggal di darah sumatera bersama kakeknya yang memimpin suatu perkebunan karet. Jadi makanan pedas tidak menjadi soal baginya.
Suatu tulisan mengenai gejala sosial dapat dianalisis dalam kaitannya dengan:
1. Dunia nyata dari pengalaman hidup dan penyajiannya dalam tulisan
2. Tulisan dan penulisnya
3. Subyek dan makna yang diberikan oleh mereka
4. Pembaca dan tulisan yang dibaca
Beberapa alternatif struktur tulisan
Kombinasi analisis dan sintesis dan pilih antara “climax first” atau “climax last”
Tiga bagian utama yang harus ada dalam laporan:
Pendahuluan (latar belakang & metode)
Isi (argumentasi dari thesis, tema, beberapa topik terkait),
Kesimpulan
Terdiri dari:
Pertanyaan umum
Sekelumit data,
Tinjauan terhadap penelitian-penelitian terdahulu
Bagian utama dari laporan (gabungan antara deskripsi, analisis dan elaborasi)
Kesimpulan
Appendix (pengumpulan data dan proses analisis)
Dengan urutan:
“what”
“why” (justifikasi dan kerangka pikir konseptual)
“how” (metode)
“analisis” (hasil, bisa dibagi dalam beberapa bab)
“meaning” (kesimpulan dan kaitannya dengan hal-hal lain)
Dengan urutan:
Yang luas: pendahuluan
Yang spesifik: definisi dari problem dan tinjauan pustaka
Yang lebih spesifik: metode dan hasil
Yang luas kembali: kesimpulan, diskusi dan implikasi
Terdiri dari
Tujuan / konteks penelitian
Metodologi
Data
Gabungan deskripsi dan interpretasi
Validasi / verifikasi dari hasil
Kesimpulan dan rekomendasi
Ringkasan
BAB
Politik dan etika dalam penelitian kualitatif
Beberapa hal yang dapat mempengaruhi penelitian kualitatif (khususnya fieldwork)
Kepribadian peneliti
Menentukan pilihan topik, pendekatan, dan kemampuan di lapangan, kelangsungan penelitian juga ditentukan oleh keadaan keluarga peneliti dan dukungan dari pasangan
Latar belakang institusional
Peneliti dari lembaga penelitian yang terkenal dan mempunyai reputasi baik biasanya akan lebih mudah untuk mendapatkan akses. Namun di lain pihak, hal ini juga bisa menghambat
Kedekatan geografis
Lebih mudah dan memungkinkan untuk melakukan penelitian di lokasi yang dekat/ mudah dicapai daripada tempat terpencil
Sifat dari objek penelitian
Penelitian terhadap apapun mempengarhi kemungkinan untuk akses, persetujuan, dana, dan konflik-konflik dalam penelitian tersebut
Gatekeepers (orang yang memungkinkan peneliti mengakses objek penelitian)
Status dari peneliti di lapangan
Kehadiran peneliti di lapangan mempengaruhi keadaan. Peneliti tunggal lebih mudah menyatu dengan fenomena yang diteliti dibandingkan dengan peneliti kelompok karena mereka tampak lebih menyolok
Harapan-harapan dalam tim peneliti
Kepemimpinan, pengawasan, disiplin, semangat, status, gaji, prospek karier dan pembagian kerja dapat menyebabkan ketegangan-ketegangan yang tidak diharapkan di lapangan dan juga dalam publikasi
Faktor-faktor lain yang juga dapat mempengaruhi adalah: gender, status, latar belakang etnik, birokrasi, kecelakaan/ musibah, dan keberuntungan
Publikasi hasil penelitian
Orang yang diteliti mungkin saja kecewa ketika kehidupannya digambarkan tidak sebagaimana dia mempersepsikannya
Tuntutan moral dan sosial
Menyangkut kode etik penelitian
Kode etik
Masalah
§ Banyak penelitian yang terkenal di dunia ternyata berakibat merugikan orang banyak.
Mis. Eksperimen di kamp konsentrasi, penelitian dengan manhattan project yang mendorong dijatuhkannya bom atom di jepang pada tahun 1945
§ Kontroversi antara perlindungan manusia dan kebebasan untuk melakukan penelitian dan mempublikasikan hasil penelitian
Hal-hal yang menyangkut etika
Persetujuan dari partisipan
Partisipan berhak untuk diberitahu bahwa mereka sedang diteliti dan apa sifat penelitiannya. Partisipan juga berhak untuk mengndurkan diri dari penelitian.
Namun, ada penelitian-penelitian yang sengaja tidak diberitahukan kepada partisipannya karena dianggap akan mempengaruhi situasi di lapangan. Mis. Penelitian terhadap perilaku kerusuhan ® peneliti tidka menjelaskan tujuan kehadirannya
Penipuan
Sebaiknya peneliti berterus terang tentang apa yang dikerjakannya dan siapa dia.
Namun, kaadang-kadang ada peneliti yang berperan seolah-olah dia adalah seseorang yang “lain” dalam rangka mendapatkan data yang akurat. Ini boleh-boleh saja selama tidak membahayakan orang yang ditelitinya, yang penting jangan mengingkari janji, mencuri dokumen, dan berbohong pada partisipan untuk hal-hal yang tidak perlu
Privacy, harm, identification, dan confidentiality
Para ahli yang beraliran tegas akan mengatakan bahwa lokasi dan identitas orang yang diteliti dan tempat penelitian harus terjaga kerahasiaannya dalam publikasi hasil penelitian. Data yang dikumpulkan disimpan dengan aman,
Dalam bentuk yang anonim.
Namun, sulit ditarik garis yang tegas antara hal-hal yang bersifat pribadi (private) dan umum (public). Juga sulit untuk betul-betul merahasiakan karena akan dapat dilihat. Mis. Dalam ucapan terima kasih atau daftar bacaan/ dokumen.
Kepercayaan dan penghianatan
Dalam penelitian kualitatif biasa hubungan antara peneliti dan partisipan yang diteliti, dapat sangat akrab dengan peneliti sendiri, dapat dianggap sudah menjadi bagian dari kelompok yang diteliti.
Namun ada saatnya peneliti harus mengakhiri hubungan ini pada saat penelitian sudah selesai dan kemudian hasil penelitian dipublikasikan. Hal ini dapat menimbulkan perasaan “ditinggalkan” dan “dihianati” di pihak orang/ kelompok yang diteliti.
Jadi dengan mempertimbangkan hal-hal tersebut di atas, peneliti kualitatif harus mempertimbangkan banyak sekali namun tidak usah takut untuk melakukan penelitian kualitatif.
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